{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T16:05:06Z","timestamp":1775145906448,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":167,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,18]],"date-time":"2024-01-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1705536000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JPM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The main recent change observed in the field of critical patient infection has been universal awareness of the need to make better use of antimicrobials, especially for the most serious cases, beyond the application of simple and effective formulas or rigid protocols. The increase in resistant microorganisms, the quantitative increase in major surgeries and interventional procedures in the highest risk patients, and the appearance of a significant number of new antibiotics in recent years (some very specifically directed against certain mechanisms of resistance and others with a broader spectrum of applications) have led us to shift our questions from \u201cwhat to deal with\u201d to \u201chow to treat\u201d. There has been controversy about how best to approach antibiotic treatment of complex cases of sepsis. The individualized and adjusted dosage, the moment of its administration, the objective, and the selection of the regimen are pointed out as factors of special relevance in a critically ill patient where the frequency of resistant microorganisms, especially among the Enterobacterales group, and the emergence of multiple and diverse antibiotic treatment alternatives have made the appropriate choice of antibiotic treatment more complex, requiring a constant updating of knowledge and the creation of multidisciplinary teams to confront new infections that are difficult to treat. In this article, we have reviewed the phenomenon of the emergence of resistance to antibacterials and we have tried to share some of the ideas, such as stewardship, sparing carbapenems, and organizational, microbiological, pharmacological, and knowledge tools, that we have considered most useful and effective for individualized decision making that takes into account the current context of multidrug resistance. The greatest challenge, therefore, of decision making in this context lies in determining an effective, optimal, and balanced empirical antibiotic treatment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm14010106","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,18]],"date-time":"2024-01-18T03:50:56Z","timestamp":1705549856000},"page":"106","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Sepsis Stewardship: The Puzzle of Antibiotic Therapy in the Context of Individualization of Decision Making"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3045-4890","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fernando","family":"Ramasco","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anaesthesiology and Surgical Intensive Care, Hospital Universitario de La Princesa, Diego de Le\u00f3n 62, 28006 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rosa","family":"M\u00e9ndez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anaesthesiology and Surgical Intensive Care, Hospital Universitario de La Princesa, Diego de Le\u00f3n 62, 28006 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1139-8547","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alejandro","family":"Suarez de la Rica","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anaesthesiology and Surgical Intensive Care, Hospital Universitario de La Princesa, Diego de Le\u00f3n 62, 28006 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8130-3465","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafael","family":"Gonz\u00e1lez de Castro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anaesthesiology and Surgical Intensive Care, Hospital Universitario de Le\u00f3n, 24071 Le\u00f3n, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Emilio","family":"Maseda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anaesthesiology and Surgical Intensive Care, Hospital Universitario Quir\u00f3n Sur Salud, 28922 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1186\/s44158-023-00095-6","article-title":"Rationale and clinical application of antimicrobial stewardship principles in the intensive care unit: A multidisciplinary statement","volume":"3","author":"Cortegiani","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Anesth. Analg. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-023-06990-4","article-title":"Individualised dosing of antibiotics in ICU patients: Timing, target and model selection matter","volume":"49","author":"Liebchen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e255","DOI":"10.3346\/jkms.2018.33.e255","article-title":"The Infinity War: How to Cope with Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae","volume":"33","author":"Yoo","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Korean Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, K.W.K., Millar, B.C., and Moore, J.E. (2023). Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR). Br. J. Biomed. Sci., 80.","DOI":"10.3389\/bjbs.2023.11387"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1177\/2042098614554919","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance: Risk associated with antibiotic overuse and initiatives to reduce the problem","volume":"5","author":"Llor","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Drug Saf."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00355-19","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00355-19","article-title":"The Microbiology of Bloodstream Infection: 20-Year Trends from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program","volume":"63","author":"Diekema","year":"2019","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154352","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrc.2023.154352","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance and outcome in the critically ill patient: An opinion paper","volume":"77","author":"Leone","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karukappadath, R.M., Sirbu, D., and Zaky, A. (2023). Drug-resistant bacteria in the critically ill: Patterns and mechanisms of resistance and potential remedies. Front. Antibiot., 2.","DOI":"10.3389\/frabi.2023.1145190"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0035-1544209","article-title":"The Challenge of Treating Superbugs","volume":"36","author":"Paterson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Semin. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2011.03570.x","article-title":"Multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant and pandrug-resistant bacteria: An international expert proposal for interim standard definitions for acquired resistance","volume":"18","author":"Magiorakos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1186\/cc1514","article-title":"Clinical review: Immunodepression in the surgical patient and increased susceptibility to infection","volume":"6","author":"Angele","year":"2002","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1097\/ACO.0000000000000830","article-title":"Multidrug-resistant bacteria in ICU: Fact or myth","volume":"33","author":"Boelens","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Anaesthesiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1097\/MCC.0000000000000534","article-title":"Risk stratification and treatment of ICU-acquired pneumonia caused by multidrug- resistant\/extensively drug-resistant\/pandrug-resistant bacteria","volume":"24","author":"Bassetti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"The Abdominal Sepsis Study (AbSeS) Group on behalf of the Trials Group of the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine, Blot, S., Antonelli, M., Arvaniti, K., Blot, K., Creagh-Brown, B., de Lange, D., De Waele, J., Deschepper, M., and Dikmen, Y. (2019). Epidemiology of intra-abdominal infection and sepsis in critically ill patients: \u201cAbSeS\u201d, a multinational observational cohort study and ESICM Trials Group Project. Intensive Care Med., 45, 1703\u20131717.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-019-05819-3"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejim.2022.01.029","article-title":"Optimizing antibiotic therapies to reduce the risk of bacterial resistance","volume":"99","author":"Bassetti","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.202003-188ST","article-title":"Antibiotic Stewardship in the Intensive Care Unit. An Official American Thoracic Society Workshop Report in Collaboration with the AACN, CHEST, CDC, and SCCM","volume":"17","author":"Wunderink","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1080\/14787210.2019.1568239","article-title":"Antibiotic stewardship in sepsis management: Toward a balanced use of antibiotics for the severely ill patient","volume":"17","author":"Dhaese","year":"2019","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Shrestha, J., Zahra, F., and Cannady, J. (2023, August 29). Antimicrobial Stewardship, StatPearls, Available online: http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK572068\/."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.3949\/ccjm.84gr.17003","article-title":"Antibiotic stewardship: Why we must, how we can","volume":"84","author":"Srinivasan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cleve Clin. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Damiani, E., Donati, A., Serafini, G., Rinaldi, L., Adrario, E., Pelaia, P., Busani, S., and Girardis, M. (2015). Effect of performance improvement programs on compliance with sepsis bundles and mortality: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0125827"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-022-03917-1","article-title":"Sepsis Performance Improvement Programs: From Evidence Toward Clinical Implementation","volume":"26","author":"Schinkel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-021-06506-y","article-title":"Surviving sepsis campaign: International guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock 2021","volume":"47","author":"Evans","year":"2021","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.37201\/req\/105.2021","article-title":"Sepsis Code: Dodging mortality in a tertiary hospital","volume":"35","author":"Figuerola","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rev. Esp. Quimioter."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.37201\/req\/126.2021","article-title":"Recommendations for antibiotic selection for severe nosocomial infections","volume":"34","author":"Mensa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rev. Esp. Quimioter."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1007\/s11908-021-00755-0","article-title":"New Microbiological Techniques for the Diagnosis of Bacterial Infections and Sepsis in ICU Including Point of Care","volume":"23","author":"Peri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2018.19509","article-title":"Rethinking How Antibiotics Are Prescribed: Incorporating the 4 Moments of Antibiotic Decision Making Into Clinical Practice","volume":"321","author":"Tamma","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-019-05520-5","article-title":"Rationalizing antimicrobial therapy in the ICU: A narrative review","volume":"45","author":"Timsit","year":"2019","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.5005\/jp-journals-10071-23810","article-title":"Clinical Microbiology in the Intensive Care Unit: Time for Intensivists to Rejuvenate this Lost Art","volume":"25","author":"Princess","year":"2021","journal-title":"Indian J. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics13020277","article-title":"Fast Track Diagnostic Tools for Clinical Management of Sepsis: Paradigm Shift from Conventional to Advanced Methods","volume":"13","author":"Gupta","year":"2023","journal-title":"Diagnostics"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11060663","article-title":"Recent Advances in the Use of Molecular Methods for the Diagnosis of Bacterial Infections","volume":"11","author":"Gerace","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2019.304782","article-title":"Point-of-Care Testing in Microbiology: A Mechanism for Improving Patient Outcomes","volume":"66","author":"Hansen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10020165","article-title":"The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration of Antibiotics: Methods, Interpretation, Clinical Relevance","volume":"10","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.37201\/req\/s03.18.2022","article-title":"New definitions of susceptibility categories EUCAST 2019: Clinic application","volume":"35","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rev. Esp. Quim."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1086\/511642","article-title":"Mutant Selection Window Hypothesis Updated","volume":"44","author":"Drlica","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1086\/338571","article-title":"Restricting the selection of antibiotic-resistant mutant bacteria: Measurement and potential use of the mutant selection window","volume":"185","author":"Zhao","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"78","article-title":"Antibiotic selection in the treatment of acute invasive infections by Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Guidelines by the Spanish Society of Chemotherapy","volume":"31","author":"Mensa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rev. Esp. Quimioter."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schlebusch, S., Graham, R.M.A., Jennison, A.V., Lassig-Smith, M.M., Harris, P.N.A., Lipman, J., \u00d3 Cu\u00edv, P., and Paterson, D.L. (2022). Standard rectal swabs as a surrogate sample for gut microbiome monitoring in intensive care. BMC Microbiol., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-022-02487-0"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-015-0800-5","article-title":"Combatting resistance in intensive care: The multimodal approach of the Spanish ICU \u00abZero Resistance\u00bb program","volume":"19","author":"Montero","year":"2015","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1797","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-015-4032-6","article-title":"Understanding PK\/PD","volume":"42","author":"Roberts","year":"2016","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1072","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciu027","article-title":"DALI: Defining antibiotic levels in intensive care unit patients: Are current \u03b2-lactam antibiotic doses sufficient for critically ill patients?","volume":"58","author":"Roberts","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-019-2378-9","article-title":"Optimization of the treatment with beta-lactam antibiotics in critically ill patients\u2014Guidelines from the French Society of Pharmacology and Therapeutics (Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 Fran\u00e7aise de Pharmacologie et Th\u00e9rapeutique\u2014SFPT) and the French Society of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care Medicine (Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 Fran\u00e7aise d\u2019Anesth\u00e9sie et R\u00e9animation\u2014SFAR)","volume":"23","author":"Guilhaumou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"736","DOI":"10.1002\/phar.2844","article-title":"International consensus recommendations for the use of prolonged-infusion beta-lactam antibiotics: Endorsed by the American College of Clinical Pharmacy, British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Society of Critical Care Medicine, and Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists: An executive summary","volume":"43","author":"Hong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pharmacotherapy"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrc.2021.06.004","article-title":"Effectiveness and safety of adjunctive inhaled antibiotics for ventilator-associated pneumonia: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"65","author":"Tang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e61","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciw353","article-title":"Management of Adults with Hospital-acquired and Ventilator-associated Pneumonia: 2016 Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society","volume":"63","author":"Kalil","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"1","article-title":"Guidelines for preventing health-care-associated pneumonia, 2003: Recommendations of CDC and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee","volume":"53","author":"Tablan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. Recomm. Rep."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2017.04.011","article-title":"Use of nebulized antimicrobials for the treatment of respiratory infections in invasively mechanically ventilated adults: A position paper from the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases","volume":"23","author":"Rello","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gorham, J., Taccone, F.S., and Hites, M. (2023). How to Use Nebulized Antibiotics in Severe Respiratory Infections. Antibiotics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics12020267"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-020-06050-1","article-title":"Antimicrobial therapeutic drug monitoring in critically ill adult patients: A Position Paper","volume":"46","author":"Alffenaar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1137975","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2023.1137975","article-title":"Individualized antibiotic dosage regimens for patients with augmented renal clearance","volume":"14","author":"Shi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2018.19283","article-title":"Evaluation and Management of Penicillin Allergy: A Review","volume":"321","author":"Shenoy","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1111\/all.13848","article-title":"The challenge of de-labeling penicillin allergy","volume":"75","author":"Stone","year":"2020","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.2147\/JAA.S242061","article-title":"\u03b2-Lactam Allergy and Cross-Reactivity: A Clinician\u2019s Guide to Selecting an Alternative Antibiotic","volume":"14","author":"Caruso","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Asthma Allergy"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.waojou.2022.100640","article-title":"Standards for practical intravenous rapid drug desensitization & delabeling: A WAO committee statement","volume":"15","author":"Broyles","year":"2022","journal-title":"World Allergy Organ. J."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1111\/cea.14217","article-title":"BSACI guideline for the set-up of penicillin allergy de-labelling services by non-allergists working in a hospital setting","volume":"52","author":"Savic","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2020.0403","article-title":"Development and Validation of a Penicillin Allergy Clinical Decision Rule","volume":"180","author":"Trubiano","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1007\/s43678-022-00286-0","article-title":"Is it possible to identify patients at low risk of having a true penicillin allergy?","volume":"24","author":"Courtemanche","year":"2022","journal-title":"Can. J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iac.2021.12.002","article-title":"A Risk-Based Approach to Penicillin Allergy","volume":"42","author":"Trubiano","year":"2022","journal-title":"Immunol. Allergy Clin. North Am."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajem.2023.03.013","article-title":"Administration of \u03b2-lactam antibiotics to patients with reported penicillin allergy in the emergency department","volume":"68","author":"Holmes","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cir838","article-title":"Forgotten antibiotics: An inventory in Europe, the United States, Canada, and Australia","volume":"54","author":"Pulcini","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2020.1754133","article-title":"Colistin and its role in the Era of antibiotic resistance: An extended review (2000\u20132019)","volume":"9","author":"Zhong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"62","article-title":"Fosfomycin in antimicrobial stewardship programs","volume":"32","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. Esp. Quimioter."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rychl\u00ed\u010dkov\u00e1, J., Kub\u00ed\u010dkov\u00e1, V., Suk, P., and Urb\u00e1nek, K. (2023). Challenges of Colistin Use in ICU and Therapeutic Drug Monitoring: A Literature Review. Antibiotics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics12030437"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/2110-5820-4-13","article-title":"Cotrimoxazole\u2014Optimal dosing in the critically ill","volume":"4","author":"Brown","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Intensive Care"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tamma, P.D., Aitken, S.L., Bonomo, R.A., Mathers, A.J., van Duin, D., and Clancy, C.J. (2023). Infectious Diseases Society of America 2023 Guidance on the Treatment of Antimicrobial Resistant Gram-Negative Infections. Clin. Infect. Dis., ciad428.","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciad428"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1003","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-020-04121-1","article-title":"Tigecycline antibacterial activity, clinical effectiveness, and mechanisms and epidemiology of resistance: Narrative review","volume":"41","author":"Yaghoubi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1186\/s13613-020-00715-2","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of high-dose tigecycline in critically ill patients with severe infections","volume":"10","author":"Lisi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Intensive Care"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), Spellberg, B., Blaser, M., Guidos, R.J., Boucher, H.W., and Bradley, J.S. (2011). Combating antimicrobial resistance: Policy recommendations to save lives. Clin. Infect. Dis., 52, S397\u2013S428.","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cir153"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"dlaa114","DOI":"10.1093\/jacamr\/dlaa114","article-title":"Treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): Updated guidelines from the UK","volume":"3","author":"Brown","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAC Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3075","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehv319","article-title":"2015 ESC Guidelines for the management of infective endocarditis: The Task Force for the Management of Infective Endocarditis of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Endorsed by: European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS), the European Association of Nuclear Medicine (EANM)","volume":"36","author":"Habib","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Infectious Diseases Society of America (2010). The 10 x \u201920 Initiative: Pursuing a global commitment to develop 10 new antibacterial drugs by 2020. Clin. Infect. Dis., 50, 1081\u20131083.","DOI":"10.1086\/652237"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1097\/MCC.0000000000000968","article-title":"New antimicrobial treatment options for severe Gram-negative infections","volume":"28","author":"Hetzler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idc.2022.08.004","article-title":"Management of Highly Resistant Gram-Negative Infections in the Intensive Care Unit in the Era of Novel Antibiotics","volume":"36","author":"Clancy","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1007\/s40265-018-0902-x","article-title":"Ceftazidime-Avibactam: A Review in the Treatment of Serious Gram-Negative Bacterial Infections","volume":"78","author":"Shirley","year":"2018","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.37201\/req\/s01.11.2021","article-title":"Ceftazidime-Avibactam","volume":"34","author":"Matesanz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rev. Esp. Quimioter."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eimc.2022.06.004","article-title":"Executive summary of the consensus document of the Spanish Society of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology (SEIMC) on the diagnosis and antimicrobial treatment of infections due to carbapenem-resistant Gram-negative bacteria","volume":"41","author":"Pintado","year":"2023","journal-title":"Enferm. Infecc. Microbiol. Clin."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2021.11.025","article-title":"European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) guidelines for the treatment of infections caused by multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacilli (endorsed by European society of intensive care medicine)","volume":"28","author":"Paul","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"iv23","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkab352","article-title":"Current and future perspectives in the treatment of multidrug-resistant Gram-negative infections","volume":"76","author":"Bassetti","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1989","DOI":"10.1007\/s40121-021-00507-6","article-title":"Ceftazidime-Avibactam for the Treatment of Serious Gram-Negative Infections with Limited Treatment Options: A Systematic Literature Review","volume":"10","author":"Soriano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Ther."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1007\/s40121-023-00762-9","article-title":"The Use and Effectiveness of Ceftazidime\u2013Avibactam in Real-World Clinical Practice: EZTEAM Study","volume":"12","author":"Soriano","year":"2023","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Ther."},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"e28283","article-title":"Early and Appropriate Use of Ceftazidime-Avibactam in the Management of Multidrug-Resistant Gram-Negative Bacterial Infections in the Indian Scenario","volume":"14","author":"Swaminathan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofz522","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofz522","article-title":"Real-World Experience with Ceftazidime-Avibactam for Multidrug-Resistant Gram-Negative Bacterial Infections","volume":"6","author":"Jorgensen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1452","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkac049","article-title":"Impact of ceftazidime\/avibactam versus best available therapy on mortality from infections caused by carbapenemase-producing Enterobacterales (CAVICOR study)","volume":"77","author":"Cano","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00779-19","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00779-19","article-title":"Evaluation of the Synergy of Ceftazidime-Avibactam in Combination with Meropenem, Amikacin, Aztreonam, Colistin, or Fosfomycin against Well-Characterized Multidrug-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa","volume":"63","author":"Mikhail","year":"2019","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20420986211027096","DOI":"10.1177\/20420986211027096","article-title":"The safety of ceftolozane-tazobactam for the treatment of acute bacterial infections: A systemic review and meta-analysis","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Drug Saf."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.37201\/req\/s01.08.2022","article-title":"Ceftolozane-tazobactam in nosocomial pneumonia","volume":"35","author":"Candel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rev. Esp. Quimioter."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-021-03694-3","article-title":"Ceftolozane\/tazobactam versus meropenem in patients with ventilated hospital-acquired bacterial pneumonia: Subset analysis of the ASPECT-NP randomized, controlled phase 3 trial","volume":"25","author":"Timsit","year":"2021","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1186\/s13756-021-00933-8","article-title":"Real-world use of ceftolozane\/tazobactam: A systematic literature review","volume":"10","author":"Puzniak","year":"2021","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sansone, P., Giaccari, L.G., Coppolino, F., Aurilio, C., Barbarisi, A., Passavanti, M.B., Pota, V., and Pace, M.C. (2022). Cefiderocol for Carbapenem-Resistant Bacteria: Handle with Care! A Review of the Real-World Evidence. Antibiotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11070904"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.37201\/req\/s02.06.2022","article-title":"The role of cefiderocol in clinical practice","volume":"35","author":"Maseda","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rev. Esp. Quimioter."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(20)30796-9","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of cefiderocol or best available therapy for the treatment of serious infections caused by carbapenem-resistant Gram-negative bacteria (CREDIBLE-CR): A randomised, open-label, multicentre, pathogen-focused, descriptive, phase 3 trial","volume":"21","author":"Bassetti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1186\/s13613-023-01146-5","article-title":"Treatment of critically ill patients with cefiderocol for infections caused by multidrug-resistant pathogens: Review of the evidence","volume":"13","author":"Viale","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Intensive Care"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0000000000000598","article-title":"Carbapenem-sparing strategy: Carbapenemase, treatment, and stewardship","volume":"32","author":"Corcione","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jean, S.S., Harnod, D., and Hsueh, P.R. (2022). Global Threat of Carbapenem-Resistant Gram-Negative Bacteria. Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.823684"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-020-05929-3","article-title":"Antimicrobial-associated harm in critical care: A narrative review","volume":"46","author":"Arulkumaran","year":"2020","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"984","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2018.12163","article-title":"Effect of Piperacillin-Tazobactam vs Meropenem on 30-Day Mortality for Patients with E. coli or Klebsiella pneumoniae Bloodstream Infection and Ceftriaxone Resistance: A Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"320","author":"Harris","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0000000000000490","article-title":"The ideal patient profile for new beta-lactam\/beta-lactamase inhibitors","volume":"31","author":"Montravers","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-021-03787-z","article-title":"Timing of antibiotic therapy in the ICU","volume":"25","author":"Kollef","year":"2021","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-019-05871-z","article-title":"Antimicrobial de-escalation as part of antimicrobial stewardship in intensive care: No simple answers to simple questions\u2014A viewpoint of experts","volume":"46","author":"Schouten","year":"2020","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S119","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa221","article-title":"Considerations for Empiric Antimicrobial Therapy in Sepsis and Septic Shock in an Era of Antimicrobial Resistance","volume":"222","author":"Strich","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1186\/s13613-023-01155-4","article-title":"The place of new antibiotics for Gram-negative bacterial infections in intensive care: Report of a consensus conference","volume":"13","author":"Dequin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Intensive Care"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S264","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa682","article-title":"Sepsis and the Microbiome: A Vicious Cycle","volume":"223","author":"Miller","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-017-1819-6","article-title":"Sleeping with the enemy: Clostridium difficile infection in the intensive care unit","volume":"21","author":"Prechter","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652638","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2021.652638","article-title":"Surveillance of Resistance to New Antibiotics in an Era of Limited Treatment Options","volume":"8","author":"Morel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-021-03736-w","article-title":"Initial antimicrobial management of sepsis","volume":"25","author":"Niederman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1764","DOI":"10.1086\/504383","article-title":"The antimicrobial therapy puzzle: Could pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic relationships be helpful in addressing the issue of appropriate pneumonia treatment in critically ill patients?","volume":"42","author":"Pea","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.4161\/viru.26913","article-title":"An alternate pathophysiologic paradigm of sepsis and septic shock: Implications for optimizing antimicrobial therapy","volume":"5","author":"Kumar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Virulence"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1503.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2022.06.018","article-title":"Evaluation of the inoculum effect of new antibiotics against carbapenem-resistant enterobacterales","volume":"28","author":"Danjean","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100970","DOI":"10.1016\/j.accpm.2021.100970","article-title":"A personalised approach to antibiotic pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in critically ill patients","volume":"40","author":"Heffernan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anaesth. Crit. Care Pain. Med."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-020-03091-2","article-title":"Update of the treatment of nosocomial pneumonia in the ICU","volume":"24","author":"Zaragoza","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Franco, S., Alfieri, A., Fiore, M., Fittipaldi, C., Pota, V., Coppolino, F., Sansone, P., Pace, M.C., and Passavanti, M.B. (2022). A Literature Overview of Secondary Peritonitis Due to Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacterales (CRE) in Intensive Care Unit (ICU) Patients. Antibiotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11101347"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkx349","article-title":"Daptomycin","volume":"73","author":"Heidary","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chest.2021.08.081","article-title":"Risk Factors for Invasive Candida Infection in Critically Ill Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"161","author":"Schlattmann","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1080\/14787210.2018.1528872","article-title":"Systematic review on the first line treatment of amphotericin B in critically ill adults with candidemia or invasive candidiasis","volume":"16","author":"Keane","year":"2018","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1080\/14737159.2022.2037422","article-title":"Faster infection diagnostics for intensive care unit (ICU) patients","volume":"22","author":"Burillo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm13020333","article-title":"Biomarkers as Prognostic Predictors and Therapeutic Guide in Critically Ill Patients: Clinical Evidence","volume":"13","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Pers. Med."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-016-1285-6","article-title":"Advances in antibiotic therapy in the critically ill","volume":"20","author":"Vincent","year":"2016","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2010.09.007","article-title":"Appropriateness is critical","volume":"27","author":"Ulldemolins","year":"2011","journal-title":"Crit. Care Clin."},{"key":"ref_118","first-page":"261","article-title":"Optimal Aminoglycoside Therapy Following the Sepsis: How Much Is Too Much?","volume":"12","author":"Mahmoudi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Iran. J. Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1589","DOI":"10.1097\/01.CCM.0000217961.75225.E9","article-title":"Duration of hypotension before initiation of effective antimicrobial therapy is the critical determinant of survival in human septic shock","volume":"34","author":"Kumar","year":"2006","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1749","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000000330","article-title":"Empiric antibiotic treatment reduces mortality in severe sepsis and septic shock from the first hour: Results from a guideline-based performance improvement program","volume":"42","author":"Ferrer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-021-03883-0","article-title":"Time-to-antibiotics and clinical outcomes in patients with sepsis and septic shock: A prospective nationwide multicenter cohort study","volume":"26","author":"Im","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000002436","article-title":"Physician Variation in Time to Antimicrobial Treatment for Septic Patients Presenting to the Emergency Department","volume":"45","author":"Peltan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iccn.2017.02.002","article-title":"A survey of critical care nurses\u2019 practices and perceptions surrounding early intravenous antibiotic initiation during septic shock","volume":"41","author":"Roberts","year":"2017","journal-title":"Intensive Crit. Care Nurs."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idc.2022.08.001","article-title":"Timing and Spectrum of Antibiotic Treatment for Suspected Sepsis and Septic Shock: Why so Controversial?","volume":"36","author":"Pak","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annemergmed.2020.04.042","article-title":"Outcome of Immediate Versus Early Antibiotics in Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"76","author":"Rothrock","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa059","article-title":"Infectious Diseases Society of America Position Paper: Recommended Revisions to the National Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock Early Management Bundle (SEP-1) Sepsis Quality Measure","volume":"72","author":"Rhee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S110","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa146","article-title":"A Critical Analysis of the Literature on Time-to-Antibiotics in Suspected Sepsis","volume":"222","author":"Weinberger","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1234","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-016-4307-6","article-title":"Therapeutic management of peritonitis: A comprehensive guide for intensivists","volume":"42","author":"Montravers","year":"2016","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e4194809","DOI":"10.25100\/cm.v52i2.4809","article-title":"Evolution of damage control surgery in non-traumatic abdominal pathology: A light in the darkness","volume":"52","author":"Caicedo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Colomb. Med."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1799","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-022-06852-5","article-title":"Source control in the management of sepsis and septic shock","volume":"48","author":"Girardis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1593","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-022-06883-y","article-title":"Poor timing and failure of source control are risk factors for mortality in critically ill patients with secondary peritonitis","volume":"48","author":"Antonelli","year":"2022","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1159\/000526785","article-title":"The Need of Antimicrobial Stewardship in Post-Operative Infectious Complications of Abdominal Surgery","volume":"38","author":"Obst","year":"2022","journal-title":"Visc. Med."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrc.2014.12.014","article-title":"Procalcitonin-guided therapy may reduce length of antibiotic treatment in intensive care unit patients with secondary peritonitis: A multicenter retrospective study","volume":"30","author":"Maseda","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"For the DURAPOP Trial Group, Montravers, P., Tubach, F., Lescot, T., Veber, B., Esposito-Far\u00e8se, M., Seguin, P., Paugam, C., Lepape, A., and Meistelman, C. (2018). Short-course antibiotic therapy for critically ill patients treated for postoperative intra-abdominal infection: The DURAPOP randomised clinical trial. Intensive Care Med., 44, 300\u2013310.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-018-5088-x"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1007\/s00068-021-01750-9","article-title":"Tertiary peritonitis: Considerations for complex team-based care","volume":"48","author":"Bass","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Trauma. Emerg. Surg."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2160","DOI":"10.12998\/wjcc.v9.i10.2160","article-title":"Tertiary peritonitis: A disease that should not be ignored","volume":"9","author":"Marques","year":"2021","journal-title":"World J. Clin. Cases"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0775","DOI":"10.1097\/CCE.0000000000000775","article-title":"Sepsis-Related Mortality Rates and Trends Based on Site of Infection","volume":"4","author":"Prest","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit. Care Explor."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10128","DOI":"10.15252\/emmm.201810128","article-title":"Sepsis therapies: Learning from 30 years of failure of translational research to propose new leads","volume":"12","author":"Cavaillon","year":"2020","journal-title":"EMBO Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cix947","article-title":"Risk of Subsequent Sepsis within 90 Days after a Hospital Stay by Type of Antibiotic Exposure","volume":"66","author":"Baggs","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1002\/phar.2201","article-title":"Duration of Exposure to Antipseudomonal \u03b2-Lactam Antibiotics in the Critically Ill and Development of New Resistance","volume":"39","author":"Teshome","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pharmacotherapy"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1656","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0b013e318287f713","article-title":"Early Antibiotic Discontinuation in Patients with Clinically Suspected Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia and Negative Quantitative Bronchoscopy Cultures","volume":"41","author":"Raman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1996","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1411162","article-title":"Trial of Short-Course Antimicrobial Therapy for Intraabdominal Infection","volume":"372","author":"Sawyer","year":"2015","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciy1054","article-title":"Seven Versus 14 Days of Antibiotic Therapy for Uncomplicated Gram-negative Bacteremia: A Noninferiority Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"69","author":"Yahav","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1186\/s13063-019-3357-9","article-title":"Efficacy of seven and fourteen days of antibiotic treatment in uncomplicated Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia (SAB7): Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial","volume":"20","author":"Andersen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trials"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2018.09.018","article-title":"Impact of antimicrobial treatment duration on outcome of Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: A cohort study","volume":"25","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2588","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.290.19.2588","article-title":"Comparison of 8 vs 15 Days of Antibiotic Therapy for Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia in Adults: A Randomized Trial","volume":"290","author":"Chastre","year":"2003","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-022-06690-5","article-title":"Comparison of 8 versus 15 days of antibiotic therapy for Pseudomonas aeruginosa ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults: A randomized, controlled, open-label trial","volume":"48","author":"Tuffet","year":"2022","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac809","article-title":"Less Is More: A 7-Day Course of Antibiotics Is the Evidence-Based Treatment for Pseudomonas aeruginosa Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia","volume":"76","author":"Metersky","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-020-06323-9","article-title":"Relationship between SARS-CoV-2 infection and the incidence of ventilator-associated lower respiratory tract infections: A European multicenter cohort study","volume":"47","author":"Povoa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(93)90277-N","article-title":"High serum procalcitonin concentrations in patients with sepsis and infection","volume":"341","author":"Assicot","year":"1993","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1007\/s00423-004-0463-1","article-title":"Procalcitonin: Improved biochemical severity stratification and postoperative monitoring in severe abdominal inflammation and sepsis","volume":"389","author":"Rau","year":"2004","journal-title":"Langenbeck\u2019s Arch. Surg."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(09)61879-1","article-title":"Use of procalcitonin to reduce patients\u2019 exposure to antibiotics in intensive care units (PRORATA trial): A multicentre randomised controlled trial","volume":"375","author":"Bouadma","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(16)00053-0","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of procalcitonin guidance in reducing the duration of antibiotic treatment in critically ill patients: A randomised, controlled, open-label trial","volume":"16","author":"Beishuizen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1080\/00365513.2019.1703216","article-title":"Calprotectin is superior to procalcitonin as a sepsis marker and predictor of 30-day mortality in intensive care patients","volume":"80","author":"Larsson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Investig."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parke, \u00c5., Unge, C., Yu, D., Sund\u00e9n-Cullberg, J., and Str\u00e5lin, K. (2023). Plasma calprotectin as an indicator of need of transfer to intensive care in patients with suspected sepsis at the emergency department. BMC Emerg. Med., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12873-023-00785-y"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1186\/s13017-017-0141-6","article-title":"The management of intra-abdominal infections from a global perspective: 2017 WSES guidelines for management of intra-abdominal infections","volume":"12","author":"Sartelli","year":"2017","journal-title":"World J. Emerg. Surg."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-014-0596-8","article-title":"Multi-drug resistance, inappropriate initial antibiotic therapy and mortality in Gram-negative severe sepsis and septic shock: A retrospective cohort study","volume":"18","author":"Zilberberg","year":"2014","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1097\/SHK.0000000000000540","article-title":"Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock: Timing of Septic Shock Onset Matters","volume":"45","author":"Huang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Shock"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2342","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000000516","article-title":"Using the number needed to treat to assess appropriate antimicrobial therapy as a determinant of outcome in severe sepsis and septic shock","volume":"42","author":"Scolari","year":"2014","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.128.2.545","article-title":"Penetration of gentamicin into the alveolar lining fluid of critically ill patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia","volume":"128","author":"Panidis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1002\/phar.2209","article-title":"International Consensus Guidelines for the Optimal Use of the Polymyxins: Endorsed by the American College of Clinical Pharmacy (ACCP), European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID), Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), International Society for Anti-infective Pharmacology (ISAP), Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM), and Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists (SIDP)","volume":"39","author":"Tsuji","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pharmacotherapy"},{"key":"ref_162","first-page":"2049936120912049","article-title":"How to manage KPC infections","volume":"7","author":"Bassetti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1204","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cix991","article-title":"Risks of Infection and Mortality among Patients Colonized with Klebsiella pneumoniae Carbapenemase-Producing K. pneumoniae: Validation of Scores and Proposal for Management","volume":"66","author":"Cano","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0000000000000599","article-title":"Risk stratification for multidrug-resistant Gram-negative infections in ICU patients","volume":"32","author":"Burillo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1080\/14787210.2019.1595590","article-title":"The use of predictive scores in the management of patients with carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae infection","volume":"17","author":"Giannella","year":"2019","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1370","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciab415","article-title":"Risk Factors Associated with Carbapenemase-Producing Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae Positive Cultures in a Cohort of US Veterans","volume":"73","author":"Wilson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Waele, J.J., Coccolini, F., Lagunes, L., Maseda, E., Rausei, S., Rubio-Perez, I., Theodorakopoulou, M., and Arvanti, K. (2023). Optimized Treatment of Nosocomial Peritonitis. Antibiotics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics12121711"}],"container-title":["Journal of Personalized Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4426\/14\/1\/106\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:49:31Z","timestamp":1760104171000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4426\/14\/1\/106"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,18]]},"references-count":167,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["jpm14010106"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jpm14010106","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4426"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-4426","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,18]]}}}