{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]],"date-time":"2026-09-20T05:09:40Z","timestamp":1789880980212,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":135,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,18]],"date-time":"2024-06-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1718668800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JPM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The gut microbiome is of paramount importance in preserving internal balance in the gastrointestinal tract; therefore, disruptions in its regulation have been linked to the development of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). This article explores the intricate details of the gastrointestinal microbiome as it pertains to inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), with an emphasis on the Middle East. The study reviews the typical gut microbiome, modifications in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), determinants impacting the gut microbiome of the Middle East, and prospective therapeutic interventions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm14060652","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,18]],"date-time":"2024-06-18T07:33:20Z","timestamp":1718696000000},"page":"652","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["The Role of the Gut Microbiome in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: The Middle East Perspective"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5704-7470","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed","family":"El-Sayed","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Hillingdon Hospital NHS Trust, London UB8 3NN, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Diya","family":"Kapila","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hillingdon Hospital NHS Trust, London UB8 3NN, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rama Sami Issa","family":"Taha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Healthpoint Hospital, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 112308, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sherif","family":"El-Sayed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mid and South Essex NHS Trust, London SS0 0RY, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohd Rafiw Ahmed","family":"Mahen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, King\u2019s College Hospital London, Dubai P.O. Box 340901, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roa\u2019a","family":"Taha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Healthpoint Hospital, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 112308, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laith","family":"Alrubaiy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Healthpoint Hospital, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 112308, United Arab Emirates"},{"name":"College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 127788, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2019.04.016","article-title":"Environmental Risk Factors for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: An Umbrella Review of Meta-analyses","volume":"157","author":"Piovani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1159\/000518003","article-title":"Incidence, Prevalence, and clinical epidemiology of inflammatory bowel disease in the Arab World: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"6","author":"Mosli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Inflamm. Intest. Dis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olfatifar, M., Zali, M.R., Pourhoseingholi, M.A., Balaii, H., Ghavami, S.B., Ivanchuk, M., Ivanchuk, P., Nazari, S.H., Shahrokh, S., and Sabour, S. (2021). The emerging epidemic of inflammatory bowel disease in Asia and Iran by 2035: A modeling study. BMC Gastroenterol., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12876-021-01745-1"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg.2017.63","article-title":"Human genetic variation and the gut microbiome in disease","volume":"18","author":"Hall","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1635","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1110591","article-title":"Diversity of the human intestinal microbial flora","volume":"308","author":"Eckburg","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaau9079","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.aau9079","article-title":"Diet modulates colonic T cell responses by regulating the expression of a Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron antigen","volume":"4","author":"Wegorzewska","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, I., Ullah, N., Zha, L., Bai, Y., Khan, A., Zhao, T., Che, T., and Zhang, C. (2019). Alteration of Gut Microbiota in Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): Cause or Consequence? IBD Treatment Targeting the Gut Microbiome. Pathogens, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens8030126"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1111\/jgh.12073","article-title":"Decreased abundance of Faecalibacterium prausnitzii in the gut microbiota of Crohn\u2019s disease","volume":"28","author":"Fujimoto","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101726","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jksus.2021.101726","article-title":"Genetic association study of NOD2 and IL23R amino acid substitution polymorphisms in Saudi Inflammatory Bowel Disease patients","volume":"34","author":"Alharbi","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. King Saud Univ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-018-0008-8","article-title":"1520 reference genomes from cultivated human gut bacteria enable functional microbiome analyses","volume":"37","author":"Zou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.01.013","article-title":"Are we really vastly outnumbered? Revisiting the ratio of bacterial to host cells in humans","volume":"164","author":"Sender","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2510","DOI":"10.7150\/jca.25324","article-title":"Effects of the intestinal microbial metabolite butyrate on the development of colorectal cancer","volume":"9","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4154","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612824666181001153605","article-title":"Protective Mechanisms of Butyrate on Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"24","author":"Silva","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2221426","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2023.2221426","article-title":"Key bacterial taxa determine longitudinal dynamics of aromatic amino acid catabolism in infants\u2019 gut","volume":"15","author":"Laursen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1225","DOI":"10.1111\/1462-2920.12400","article-title":"Antimicrobial peptide resistance in Firmicutes","volume":"16","author":"Gebhard","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1016\/j.syapm.2016.04.004","article-title":"Revised phylogeny of Bacteroidetes and proposal of sixteen new taxa and two new combinations including Rhodothermaeota phyl. nov","volume":"39","author":"Munoz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Syst. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2013.10.077","article-title":"An ecological network of polysaccharide utilization among human intestinal symbionts","volume":"24","author":"Coyne","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01902-17","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01902-17","article-title":"Gut symbiont Bacteroides fragilis secretes a eukaryotic-like ubiquitin protein that mediates intraspecies antagonism","volume":"8","author":"Coyne","year":"2017","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2486","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.118.033714","article-title":"Bacteroides vulgatus and Bacteroides dorei reduce gut microbial lipopolysaccharide production and inhibit atherosclerosis","volume":"138","author":"Yoshida","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1214","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aac8469","article-title":"Gut microbiota and aging","volume":"350","author":"Jeffery","year":"2015","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00036-17","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.00036-17","article-title":"The First Microbial Colonizers of the Human Gut: Composition, Activities, and Health Implications of the Infant Gut Microbiota","volume":"81","author":"Milani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2005-2824","article-title":"Factors influencing the composition of the intestinal microbiota in early infancy","volume":"118","author":"Penders","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, S.-H., Kim, K.-A., Ahn, Y.-T., Jeong, J.-J., Huh, C.-S., and Kim, D.-H. (2015). Comparative analysis of gut microbiota in elderly people of urbanized towns and longevity villages. BMC Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-015-0386-8"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1168731","DOI":"10.3389\/fspor.2023.1168731","article-title":"Growing old together: What we know about the influence of diet and exercise on the aging host\u2019s gut microbiome","volume":"5","author":"Brooks","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Sports Act. Living"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.2174\/156652408784533779","article-title":"The role of microbiota and probiotics in stress-induced gastrointestinal damage","volume":"8","author":"Lutgendorff","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1979","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2015.11","article-title":"A phylo-functional core of gut microbiota in healthy young Chinese cohorts across lifestyles, geography and ethnicities","volume":"9","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11053","article-title":"Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography","volume":"486","author":"Yatsunenko","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1913","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2013-306541","article-title":"Exercise and associated dietary extremes impact on gut microbial diversity","volume":"63","author":"Clarke","year":"2014","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patangia, D.V., Ryan, C.A., Dempsey, E., Ross, R.P., and Stanton, C. (2022). Impact of antibiotics on the human microbiome and consequences for host health. Microbiologyopen, 11.","DOI":"10.1002\/mbo3.1260"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/s11914-015-0257-0","article-title":"Diet, gut microbiome, and bone health","volume":"13","author":"Weaver","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Osteoporos. Rep."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.05.041","article-title":"From Dietary Fiber to Host Physiology: Short-Chain Fatty Acids as Key Bacterial Metabolites","volume":"165","author":"Koh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Q., Liang, Q., Balakrishnan, B., Belobrajdic, D.P., Feng, Q.-J., and Zhang, W. (2020). Role of Dietary Nutrients in the Modulation of Gut Microbiota: A Narrative Review. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12020381"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bielik, V., and Kolisek, M. (2021). Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability of Minerals in Relation to a Healthy Gut Microbiome. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22136803"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zaky, A., Glastras, S.J., Wong, M.Y.W., Pollock, C.A., and Saad, S. (2021). The Role of the Gut Microbiome in Diabetes and Obesity-Related Kidney Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22179641"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00886-20","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00886-20","article-title":"Vitamin Biosynthesis by Human Gut Butyrate-Producing Bacteria and Cross-Feeding in Synthetic Microbial Communities","volume":"11","author":"Warnke","year":"2020","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-017-1445-8","article-title":"Gut microbiota functions: Metabolism of nutrients and other food components","volume":"57","author":"Rowland","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"148","article-title":"Systematic genome assessment of B-vitamin biosynthesis suggests co-operation among gut microbes","volume":"6","author":"Ravcheev","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Genet."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rowley, C.A., and Kendall, M.M. (2019). To B12 or not to B12: Five questions on the role of cobalamin in host-microbial interactions. PLoS Pathog., 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1007479"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbamem.2017.10.010","article-title":"Inhibition of intestinal ascorbic acid uptake by lipopolysaccharide is mediated via transcriptional mechanisms","volume":"1860","author":"Subramanian","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Biomembr."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1875774","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2021.1875774","article-title":"Effects of colon-targeted vitamins on the composition and metabolic activity of the human gut microbiome\u2014A pilot study","volume":"13","author":"Pham","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-019-0621-2","article-title":"Impact of the gut microbiome on the genome and epigenome of colon epithelial cells: Contributions to colorectal cancer development","volume":"11","author":"Allen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00447-18","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00447-18","article-title":"Epigenetic Changes Induced by Bacteroides fragilis Toxin","volume":"87","author":"Allen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodriguez-Sillke, Y., Visekruna, A., Glauben, R., Siegmund, B., and Steinhoff, U. (2021). Recognition of food antigens by the mucosal and systemic immune system: Consequences for intestinal development and homeostasis. Int. J. Med. Microbiol., 311.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmm.2021.151493"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"930","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2019.11.294","article-title":"Differences in Gut Microbiota in Patients with vs without Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: A Systematic Review","volume":"158","author":"Pittayanon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2023.05.032","article-title":"Gut Microbiome Composition Is Associated with Future Onset of Crohn\u2019s Disease in Healthy First-Degree Relatives","volume":"165","author":"Garay","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1663","DOI":"10.1002\/ibd.21923","article-title":"Common biostructure of the colonic microbiota in neuroendocrine tumors and Crohn\u2019s disease and the effect of therapy","volume":"18","author":"Swidsinski","year":"2012","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2014-307649","article-title":"Identification of an anti-inflammatory protein from Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, a commensal bacterium deficient in Crohn\u2019s disease","volume":"65","author":"Maubert","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2010.223263","article-title":"Dysbiosis of the faecal microbiota in patients with Crohn\u2019s disease and their unaffected relatives","volume":"60","author":"Joossens","year":"2011","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7135","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-42788-0","article-title":"Microbiome and metabolome features in inflammatory bowel disease via multi-omics integration analyses across cohorts","volume":"14","author":"Ning","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2754","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.02754","article-title":"Immunomodulating Activity and Therapeutic Effects of Short Chain Fatty Acids and Tryptophan Post-biotics in Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"10","author":"Russo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12672","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1904099116","article-title":"Ruminococcus gnavus, a member of the human gut microbiome associated with Crohn\u2019s disease, produces an inflammatory polysaccharide","volume":"116","author":"Henke","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-04502-w","article-title":"Immune regulation by fungal strain diversity in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"603","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro821","article-title":"Bacterial biofilms: From the natural environment to infectious diseases","volume":"2","author":"Costerton","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"61","article-title":"Mucosal flora in Crohn\u2019s disease and ulcerative colitis\u2014An overview","volume":"60","author":"Swidsinski","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3380","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.43.7.3380-3389.2005","article-title":"Spatial organization and composition of the mucosal flora in patients with inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"43","author":"Swidsinski","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prudent, V., Demarre, G., Vazeille, E., Wery, M., Quenech\u2019du, N., Ravet, A., Dauverd-Girault, J., van Dijk, E., Bringer, M.-A., and Descrimes, M. (2021). The Crohn\u2019s disease-related bacterial strain LF82 assembles biofilm-like communities to protect itself from phagolysosomal attack. Commun. Biol., 4.","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-021-02161-7"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmm.2014.01.002","article-title":"Escherichia coli isolates from inflammatory bowel diseases patients survive in macrophages and activate NLRP3 inflammasome","volume":"304","author":"Franchi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00547","DOI":"10.14309\/ctg.0000000000000547","article-title":"Bacterial Quorum-Sensing Molecules in Serum: A Potential Tool for Crohn\u2019s Disease Management","volume":"13","author":"Quintero","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109037","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/109037","article-title":"Diet, Genetics, and Disease: A Focus on the Middle East and North Africa Region","volume":"2012","author":"Fahed","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1159\/000066415","article-title":"Diet and Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease in the Arab Middle East Countries","volume":"11","author":"Musaiger","year":"2002","journal-title":"Med. Princ. Pract."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dominianni, C., Sinha, R., Goedert, J.J., Pei, Z., Yang, L., Hayes, R.B., and Ahn, J. (2015). Sex, Body Mass Index, and Dietary Fiber Intake Influence the Human Gut Microbiome. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0124599"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leeuwendaal, N.K., Stanton, C., O\u2019toole, P.W., and Beresford, T.P. (2022). Fermented Foods, Health and the Gut Microbiome. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14071527"},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"10","article-title":"Consumption of Fermented Foods Is Associated with Systematic Differences in the Gut Microbiome and Metabolome","volume":"5","author":"Taylor","year":"2020","journal-title":"mSystems"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2016-312135","article-title":"Interplay of host genetics and gut microbiota underlying the onset and clinical presentation of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"67","author":"Imhann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Molendijk, I., van der Marel, S., and Maljaars, P.W.J. (2019). Towards a Food Pharmacy: Immunologic Modulation through Diet. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11061239"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1159\/000072060","article-title":"Ulcerative colitis in Kuwait: A review of 90 cases","volume":"67","author":"Kalaoui","year":"2003","journal-title":"Digestion"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v10.i9.1341","article-title":"Epidemiology and outcome of Crohn\u2019s disease in a teaching hospital in Riyadh","volume":"10","author":"Aljebreen","year":"2004","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.2147\/CEG.S127909","article-title":"Inflammatory bowel disease in Bahrain: Single-center experience","volume":"10","author":"Abdulla","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1159\/000201453","article-title":"Ulcerative colitis in Oman. A prospective study of the incidence and disease pattern from 1987 to 1994","volume":"58","author":"Radhakrishnan","year":"1997","journal-title":"Digestion"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1002\/ibd.20022","article-title":"Clinical epidemiology of inflammatory bowel disease in Lebanon","volume":"13","author":"ElHajj","year":"2007","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra0905980","article-title":"Genomewide association studies and assessment of the risk of disease","volume":"363","author":"Manolio","year":"2010","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1038\/s41588-018-0066-3","article-title":"The importance of cohort studies in the post-GWAS era","volume":"50","author":"Wijmenga","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1086\/341124","article-title":"CARD15 genetic variation in a Quebec population: Prevalence, genotype-phenotype relationship, and haplotype structure","volume":"71","author":"Vermeire","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.4103\/sjg.sjg_613_20","article-title":"NOD2\/CARD15 polymorphisms (P268S, IVS8+158, G908R, L1007fs, R702W) among Kuwaiti patients with Crohn\u2019s disease: A case-control study","volume":"27","author":"Abdelnaby","year":"2021","journal-title":"Saudi J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1080\/03079457.2015.1004622","article-title":"Molecular analysis of the caecal and tracheal microbiome of heat-stressed broilers supplemented with prebiotic and probiotic","volume":"44","author":"Sohail","year":"2015","journal-title":"Avian Pathol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, S., Hu, Z., Tang, J., Zhu, H., Zheng, Y., Xiao, J., Xu, Y., Wang, Y., Luo, Y., and Mo, X. (2024). High temperature and humidity in the environment disrupt bile acid metabolism, the gut microbiome, and GLP-1 secretion in mice. Commun. Biol., 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-024-06158-w"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-018-0003-z","article-title":"Urbanization and the gut microbiota in health and inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"15","author":"Zuo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1097\/00042737-200205000-00010","article-title":"A case\u2013control study of childhood environmental risk factors for the development of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"14","author":"Feeney","year":"2002","journal-title":"Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2003.025239","article-title":"Antibiotic use and the development of Crohn\u2019s disease","volume":"53","author":"Card","year":"2004","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"5","article-title":"Fecal microbiota transplants: A review of emerging clinical data on applications, efficacy, and risks (2015\u20132020)","volume":"2021","author":"Ahmed","year":"2021","journal-title":"Qatar Med. J."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1842","DOI":"10.3402\/fnr.v53i0.1842","article-title":"Probiotics in the Arabian Gulf Region","volume":"53","author":"Senok","year":"2009","journal-title":"Food Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gtc.2012.08.003","article-title":"Probiotic bacteria in the prevention and the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"41","author":"Fedorak","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gastroenterol. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2016.10.004","article-title":"Complementary and alternative medicines used by patients with inflammatory bowel diseases","volume":"152","author":"Cheifetz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S46","DOI":"10.1097\/MCG.0000000000000351","article-title":"Role of probiotics in Crohn\u2019s disease and in Pouchitis","volume":"49","author":"Guslandi","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1202","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-5085(03)00171-9","article-title":"Prophylaxis of pouchitis onset with probiotic therapy: A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"124","author":"Gionchetti","year":"2003","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.53.1.108","article-title":"Once daily high dose probiotic therapy (VSL#3) for maintaining remission in recurrent or refractory pouchitis","volume":"53","author":"Mimura","year":"2004","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gtc.2017.08.003","article-title":"Probiotics in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"46","author":"Abraham","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gastroenterol. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2009.07.016","article-title":"The probiotic preparation, VSL#3 induces remission in patients with mild-to-moderately active ulcerative colitis","volume":"7","author":"Sood","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"415","article-title":"The Use of Complementary and Alternative Medicine in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"14","author":"Lin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1038\/ajg.2008.118","article-title":"Effect of a probiotic preparation (VSL#3) on induction and maintenance of remission in children with ulcerative colitis","volume":"104","author":"Miele","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1097\/01.MIB.0000437495.30052.be","article-title":"Effect of probiotics on inducing remission and maintaining therapy in ulcerative colitis, crohn\u2019s disease, and pouchitis","volume":"20","author":"Shen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.14203","article-title":"Systematic review with meta-analysis: The efficacy of probiotics in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"46","author":"Derwa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11505","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v20.i33.11505","article-title":"Intestinal microbiota, probiotics and prebiotics in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"20","author":"Orel","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612053381675","article-title":"The beneficial effects of microflora, especially obligate anaerobes, and their products on the colonic environment in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"11","author":"Kanauchi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1177\/0884533611423926","article-title":"Prebiotics and Probiotics","volume":"27","author":"Quigley","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nutr. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_96","first-page":"60","article-title":"The role of diet in the prevention and treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases","volume":"89","author":"Reddavide","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Biomed."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2013-305293","article-title":"Progress towards butyrate-producing pharmabiotics: Butyricicoccus pullicaecorum capsule and efficacy in TNBS models in comparison with therapeutics","volume":"63","author":"Eeckhaut","year":"2014","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1505S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/83.6.1505S","article-title":"n\u22123 Polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation, and inflammatory diseases","volume":"83","author":"Calder","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-019-01901-0","article-title":"Dietary intake of fish, n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and risk of inflammatory bowel disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies","volume":"59","author":"Mozaffari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S240","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114512001626","article-title":"Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory bowel diseases\u2014A systematic review","volume":"107","author":"Gassull","year":"2012","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dzi\u0105bowska-Grabias, K., Sztanke, M., Zaj\u0105c, P., Celejewski, M., Kurek, K., Szkutnicki, S., Korga, P., Bulikowski, W., and Sztanke, K. (2021). Antioxidant therapy in inflammatory bowel diseases. Antioxidants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox10030412"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102787","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ctim.2021.102787","article-title":"Administration of dietary antioxidants for patients with inflammatory bowel disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials","volume":"63","author":"Shahinfar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Complement. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_103","first-page":"20245","article-title":"Ascorbic acid ameliorates oxidative stress and inflammation in dextran sulfate sodium-induced ulcerative colitis in mice","volume":"8","author":"Yan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1016\/S1542-3565(04)00672-X","article-title":"An oral supplement enriched with fish oil, soluble fiber, and antioxidants for Corticosteroid sparing in ulcerative colitis: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"3","author":"Seidner","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bmj.k2173","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.k2173","article-title":"Personalised nutrition and health","volume":"361","author":"Ordovas","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biesiekierski, J.R., Jalanka, J., and Staudacher, H.M. (2019). Can gut microbiota composition predict response to dietary treatments?. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11051134"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2016-313128","article-title":"Multivariate modelling of faecal bacterial profiles of patients with IBS predicts responsiveness to a diet low in FODMAPs","volume":"67","author":"Bennet","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2019.04.021","article-title":"Crohn\u2019s Disease Exclusion Diet Plus Partial Enteral Nutrition Induces Sustained Remission in a Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"157","author":"Levine","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1354","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2018.12.002","article-title":"Treatment of Active Crohn\u2019s Disease with an Ordinary Food-based Diet That Replicates Exclusive Enteral Nutrition","volume":"156","author":"Svolos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_110","first-page":"15","article-title":"Personalized dietary regimens for inflammatory bowel disease: Current knowledge and future perspectives","volume":"16","author":"Wellens","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pharmacogenomics Pers. Med."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2017.1290757","article-title":"Intestinal microbiota, fecal microbiota transplantation, and inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"8","author":"Weingarden","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1038\/ajg.2011.482","article-title":"Standardized frozen preparation for transplantation of fecal microbiota for recurrent clostridium difficile infection","volume":"107","author":"Hamilton","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1205037","article-title":"Duodenal infusion of donor feces for recurrent clostridium difficile","volume":"368","author":"Vrieze","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(89)91183-5","article-title":"Treatment of ulcerative colitis by implantation of normal colonic flora","volume":"333","author":"Bennet","year":"1989","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1111\/jgh.12727","article-title":"Fecal microbiota transplantation through mid-gut for refractory Crohn\u2019s disease: Safety, feasibility, and efficacy trial results","volume":"30","author":"Cui","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hsu, M., Tun, K.M., Batra, K., Haque, L., Vongsavath, T., and Hong, A.S. (2023). Safety and Efficacy of Fecal Microbiota Transplantation in Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease in the Pediatric Population: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11051272"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1569","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crohns.2014.08.006","article-title":"Fecal microbiota transplantation as therapy for inflammatory bowel disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"8","author":"Colman","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Crohn\u2019s Colitis"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1097\/MCG.0000000000001633","article-title":"Outcomes of fecal microbiota transplantation for C. difficile infection in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"57","author":"Tariq","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2402","DOI":"10.1097\/MIB.0000000000000908","article-title":"Fecal Microbiota Transplantation is Safe and Efficacious for Recurrent or Refractory Clostridium difficile Infection in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"22","author":"Fischer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-1253(19)30452-2","article-title":"Global disparities in faecal Microbiota Transplantation Research","volume":"5","author":"Olesen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_121","first-page":"155","article-title":"Physicians\u2019 Knowledge and Attitude towards Fecal Microbiota Transplant in Iran","volume":"7","author":"Moossavi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Middle East J. Dig. Dis."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.5339\/qmj.2020.47","article-title":"Targeting the gut microbiome: A brief report on the awareness, practice, and readiness to engage in clinical interventions in Qatar","volume":"2020","author":"Bendriss","year":"2021","journal-title":"Qatar Med. J."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Bakri, A.G., Akour, A.A., and Al-Delaimy, W.K. (2021). Knowledge, attitudes, ethical and social perspectives towards fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) among Jordanian healthcare providers. BMC Med. Ethics, 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12910-021-00587-6"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pesce, M., Seguella, L., Del Re, A., Lu, J., Palenca, I., Corpetti, C., Rurgo, S., Sanseverino, W., Sarnelli, G., and Esposito, G. (2022). Next-Generation Probiotics for Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23105466"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760501","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2021.760501","article-title":"Network Biology Approaches to Achieve Precision Medicine in Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"12","author":"Thomas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Genet."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.20928.1","article-title":"Precision medicine in inflammatory bowel disease: Concept, progress and challenges","volume":"9","author":"Boyapati","year":"2020","journal-title":"F1000Research"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1007\/s00535-019-01618-1","article-title":"Manipulating resident microbiota to enhance regulatory immune function to treat inflammatory bowel diseases","volume":"55","author":"Mishima","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Emencheta, S.C., Olovo, C.V., Eze, O.C., Kalu, C.F., Berebon, D.P., Onuigbo, E.B., Vila, M.M.D.C., Balc\u00e3o, V.M., and Attama, A.A. (2023). The Role of Bacteriophages in the Gut Microbiota: Implications for Human Health. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15102416"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13960","article-title":"An enteric virus can replace the beneficial function of commensal bacteria","volume":"516","author":"Kernbauer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/S0923-2508(02)00007-4","article-title":"Development of strain-specific PCR reactions for the detection of the probiotic Escherichia coli strain Nissle 1917 in fecal samples","volume":"154","author":"Oswald","year":"2003","journal-title":"Res. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_131","first-page":"122","article-title":"The non-pathogenic Escherichia coli strain Nissle 1917\u2013features of a versatile probiotic","volume":"21","author":"Sonnenborn","year":"2009","journal-title":"Microb. Ecol. Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, L., Liao, Y., Yang, R., Zhu, Z., Zhang, L., Wu, Z., and Sun, X. (2021). An engineered probiotic secreting Sj16 ameliorates colitis via Ruminococcaceae\/butyrate\/retinoic acid axis. Bioeng. Transl. Med., 6.","DOI":"10.1002\/btm2.10219"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2344","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-021-00760-2","article-title":"Construction of a sustainable 3-hydroxybutyrate-producing probiotic Escherichia coli for treatment of colitis","volume":"18","author":"Yan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-018-1441-7","article-title":"Oral Escherichia coli expressing IL-35 meliorates experimental colitis in mice","volume":"16","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1093\/phe\/phaa003","article-title":"The Future of Phage: Ethical Challenges of Using Phage Therapy to Treat Bacterial Infections","volume":"13","author":"Anomaly","year":"2020","journal-title":"Public Health Ethics"}],"container-title":["Journal of Personalized Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4426\/14\/6\/652\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:00:33Z","timestamp":1760108433000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4426\/14\/6\/652"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,18]]},"references-count":135,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["jpm14060652"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jpm14060652","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4426"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-4426","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,18]]}}}