{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:52:20Z","timestamp":1787028740641,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":123,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,17]],"date-time":"2024-08-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1723852800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JPM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Pain in the sacroiliac (SI) region is a common clinical manifestation, often caused by diseases involving the SI joints. This is typically due to inflammation or degenerative changes, while infections or cancer are less frequent causes. The SI joint is challenging to image accurately because of its distinct anatomical characteristics. For an accurate diagnosis, conventional radiography often needs to be supplemented with more precise methods such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or computed tomography (CT). Sacroiliitis, a common presenting feature of axial spondyloarthritis (axial SpA), manifests as bone marrow edema, erosions, sclerosis, and joint space narrowing. Septic sacroiliitis and repetitive stress injuries in sports can also cause changes resembling inflammatory sacroiliitis. Other conditions, such as osteitis condensans ilii (OCI), can mimic the radiologic characteristics of sacroiliitis. Inflammatory lesions are diagnosed by concurrent erosions, hyperostosis, and ankylosis. Ligament ossifications or mechanical stress can also result in arthritic disorders. Determining the exact diagnosis can be aided by the distribution of the lesions. Inflammatory lesions can affect any part of the articulation, including the inferior and posterior portions. Mechanical lesions, such as those seen in OCI, often occur in the anterior middle region of the joint. In cases of idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis, ligament ossification is found at the joint borders. This pictorial essay describes common SI joint problems, illustrated with multimodal imaging data. We, also, discuss strategies for selecting the best imaging modalities, along with imaging pitfalls, key points, and approaches for treating patients with suspected inflammatory back pain.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm14080873","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,19]],"date-time":"2024-08-19T07:37:21Z","timestamp":1724053041000},"page":"873","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Imaging of Sacroiliac Pain: The Current State-of-the-Art"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Marina","family":"Carotti","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinica di Radiologia, Dipartimento di Scienze Radiologiche, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria delle Marche, 60126 Ancona, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luca","family":"Ceccarelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Radiology Unit, Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Speciality Medicine, Sant\u2019Orsola Hospital, University of Bologna, Via Albertoni 15, 40138 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna Claudia","family":"Poliseno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinica di Radiologia, Dipartimento di Scienze Radiologiche, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria delle Marche, 60126 Ancona, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesca","family":"Ribichini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinica di Radiologia, Dipartimento di Scienze Radiologiche, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria delle Marche, 60126 Ancona, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6874-4941","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesca","family":"Bandinelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rheumatology Department, San Giovanni di Dio Hospital, USL Tuscany Center, 50143 Florence, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5874-6428","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Enrico","family":"Scarano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology, \u201cSan Carlo\u201d Hospital, 85100 Potenza, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sonia","family":"Farah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rheumatology Unit, \u201cCarlo Urbani\u201d Hospital, Universit\u00e0 Politecnica delle Marche, 60035 Jesi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0906-4647","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Di Carlo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rheumatology Unit, \u201cCarlo Urbani\u201d Hospital, Universit\u00e0 Politecnica delle Marche, 60035 Jesi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Giovagnoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinica di Radiologia, Dipartimento di Scienze Radiologiche, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria delle Marche, 60126 Ancona, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fausto","family":"Salaffi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rheumatology Unit, \u201cCarlo Urbani\u201d Hospital, Universit\u00e0 Politecnica delle Marche, 60035 Jesi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vereecke, E., Diekhoff, T., Eshed, I., Herregods, N., Morb\u00e9e, L., Jaremko, J.L., and Jans, L. (2024). ESR Essentials: Imaging of sacroiliitis-practice recommendations by ESSR. Eur. Radiol., 1\u201310.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00330-024-10653-3"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1002\/art.1780270401","article-title":"Evaluation of diagnostic criteria for ankylosing spondylitis. A proposal for modification of the New York criteria","volume":"27","author":"Valkenburg","year":"1984","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1923","DOI":"10.1007\/s00256-022-04067-9","article-title":"Sacroiliac joint beyond sacroiliitis-further insights and old concepts on magnetic resonance imaging","volume":"51","author":"Carneiro","year":"2022","journal-title":"Skelet. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.2214\/AJR.16.16774","article-title":"The Value of the T2-Weighted Multipoint Dixon Sequence in MRI of Sacroiliac Joints for the Diagnosis of Active and Chronic Sacroiliitis","volume":"208","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Roentgenol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.3390\/clinpract14010009","article-title":"Radiological Insights into Sacroiliitis: A Narrative Review","volume":"14","author":"Obeidat","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e36708","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000036708","article-title":"Accuracy of dual-energy computed tomography for bone marrow edema in the sacroiliac joint: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"103","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1148\/radiol.2018181168","article-title":"Axial Spondyloarthritis: Dual-Energy Virtual Noncalcium CT in the Detection of Bone Marrow Edema in the Sacroiliac Joints","volume":"290","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1316","DOI":"10.55563\/clinexprheumatol\/xdlfzb","article-title":"Dual-energy computed tomography for the detection of sacroiliac joints bone marrow oedema in patients with axial spondyloarthritis","volume":"39","author":"Carotti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e15246","DOI":"10.1111\/1756-185X.15246","article-title":"MRI predictors of infectious etiology in patients with unilateral sacroiliitis","volume":"27","author":"Kandagaddala","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ii1","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.2008.104018","article-title":"The Assessment of SpondyloArthritis international Society (ASAS) handbook: A guide to assess spondyloarthritis","volume":"68","author":"Sieper","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1374","DOI":"10.1002\/art.10934","article-title":"Anatomic structures involved in early- and late-stage sacroiliitis in spondylarthritis: A detailed analysis by contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging","volume":"48","author":"Muche","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2017-211734","article-title":"Treating axial spondyloarthritis and peripheral spondyloarthritis, especially psoriatic arthritis, to target: 2017 update of recommendations by an international task force","volume":"77","author":"Smolen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Da Silva, A.B., Louren\u00e7o, M.H., Ramiro, S., Falzon, L., Cunha-Branco, J., van der Heijde, D., Landew\u00e9, R., and Sepriano, A. (2024). Performance of clinical, laboratory and imaging features for diagnosing spondyloarthritis-a systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Rheumatology, keae065."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"iv6","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keaa250","article-title":"Classification vs diagnostic criteria: The challenge of diagnosing axial spondyloarthritis","volume":"59","author":"Poddubnyy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1097\/00002281-200007000-00002","article-title":"Scientific contributions of ankylosing spondylitis patient advocacy groups","volume":"12","author":"Feldtkeller","year":"2000","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbspin.2016.06.005","article-title":"Diagnostic delay in axial spondyloarthritis: A cross-sectional study of 432 patients","volume":"84","author":"Dougados","year":"2017","journal-title":"Jt. Bone Spine"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2403","DOI":"10.1002\/art.38738","article-title":"Agreement between clinical practice and trained central reading in reading of sacroiliac joints on plain pelvic radiographs. Results from the DESIR cohort","volume":"66","author":"Lenczner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.62.6.519","article-title":"Radiographic assessment of sacroiliitis by radiologists and rheumatologists: Does training improve quality?","volume":"62","author":"Schulpen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lambert, R.G.W., Baraliakos, X., A Bernard, S., A Carrino, J., Diekhoff, T., Eshed, I., A Hermann, K.G., Herregods, N., Jaremko, J., and Jans, L.B. (2024). Development of international consensus on a standardised image acquisition protocol for diagnostic evaluation of the sacroiliac joints by MRI: An ASAS-SPARTAN collaboration. Ann. Rheum. Dis.","DOI":"10.1136\/ard-2024-225882"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1520","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.2009.110767","article-title":"Defining active sacroiliitis on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for classification of axial spondyloarthritis: A consensual approach by the ASAS\/OMERACT MRI group","volume":"68","author":"Rudwaleit","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.2009.108217","article-title":"The development of Assessment of SpondyloArthritis international Society classification criteria for axial spondyloarthritis (part I): Classification of paper patients by expert opinion including uncertainty appraisal","volume":"68","author":"Rudwaleit","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"746","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2013-204262","article-title":"Evaluation of the validity of the different arms of the ASAS set of criteria for axial spondyloarthritis and description of the different imaging abnormalities suggestive of spondyloarthritis: Data from the DESIR cohort","volume":"74","author":"Paternotte","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"886","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2016-210747","article-title":"Performance of the ASAS classification criteria for axial and peripheral spondyloarthritis: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis","volume":"76","author":"Sepriano","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diii.2017.06.013","article-title":"Protocol optimization of sacroiliac joint MR Imaging at 3 Tesla: Impact of coil design and motion resistant sequences on image quality","volume":"98","author":"Bravetti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diagn. Interv. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e000399","DOI":"10.1136\/rmdopen-2016-000399","article-title":"Fat metaplasia on MRI of the sacroiliac joints increases the propensity for disease progression in the spine of patients with spondyloarthritis","volume":"3","author":"Maksymowych","year":"2017","journal-title":"RMD Open"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1551","DOI":"10.1007\/s10067-017-3643-4","article-title":"Assessment of typical SpA lesions on MRI of the spine: Do local readers and central readers agree in the DESIR-cohort at baseline?","volume":"36","author":"Pialat","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2016-209405","article-title":"Can we use structural lesions seen on MRI of the sacroiliac joints reliably for the classification of patients according to the ASAS axial spondyloarthritis criteria? Data from the DESIR cohort","volume":"76","author":"Bakker","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1823","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2017-211596","article-title":"Sacroiliac radiographic progression in recent onset axial spondyloarthritis: The 5-year data of the DESIR cohort","volume":"76","author":"Dougados","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1823","DOI":"10.1186\/s13075-020-02337-2","article-title":"Differences between men and women with nonradiographic axial spondyloarthritis: Clinical characteristics and treatment effectiveness in a real-life prospective cohort","volume":"22","author":"Neuenschwander","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1686","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/ket207","article-title":"Factors associated with radiographic lesions in early axial spondyloarthritis. Results from the DESIR cohort","volume":"52","author":"Blachier","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R11","DOI":"10.1186\/ar1859","article-title":"Magnetic resonance imaging changes of sacroiliac joints in patients with recent-onset inflammatory back pain: Inter-reader reliability and prevalence of abnormalities","volume":"8","author":"Weijers","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2016","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2014-205432","article-title":"Classification of axial SpA based on positive imaging (radiographs and\/or MRI of the sacroiliac joints) by local rheumatologists or radiologists versus central trained readers in the DESIR cohort","volume":"74","author":"Lenczner","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3048","DOI":"10.1002\/art.27571","article-title":"The diagnostic utility of magnetic resonance imaging in spondylarthritis: An international multicenter evaluation of one hundred eighty-seven subjects","volume":"62","author":"Weber","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1002\/art.39551","article-title":"Associations between Spondyloarthritis Features and Magnetic Resonance Imaging Findings: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of 1,020 Patients with Persistent Low Back Pain","volume":"68","author":"Arnbak","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1002\/art.39549","article-title":"Sacroiliac Joint Magnetic Resonance Imaging in the Diagnosis of Axial Spondyloarthritis: \u201cA Tiny Bit of White on Two Consecutive Slices\u201d May Be Objective, but Not Specific","volume":"68","author":"Deodhar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1042","DOI":"10.1002\/art.40475","article-title":"Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Sacroiliac Joints Indicating Sacroiliitis According to the Assessment of SpondyloArthritis international Society Definition in Healthy Individuals, Runners, and Women with Postpartum Back Pain","volume":"70","author":"Berg","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1002\/art.21445","article-title":"Spondyloarthritis research Consortium of Canada magnetic resonance imaging index for assessment of sacroiliac joint inflammation in ankylosing spondylitis","volume":"53","author":"Maksymowych","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1576","DOI":"10.1007\/s00247-023-05602-z","article-title":"MRI in pediatric sacroiliitis, what radiologists should know","volume":"53","author":"Herregods","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pediatr. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1007\/s00256-014-1999-y","article-title":"Pyogenic sacroiliitis: Diagnosis, management and clinical outcome","volume":"44","author":"Kucera","year":"2015","journal-title":"Skelet. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"e1","article-title":"Pyogenic sacroiliitis: A rare complication of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"37","author":"Barnes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cosma, S., Borella, F., Carosso, A., Ingala, A., Fassio, F., Robba, T., Maina, A., Bertero, L., and Benedetto, C. (2019). Osteomyelitis of the pubic symphysis caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus after vaginal delivery: A case report and literature review. BMC Infect. Dis., 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-019-4595-x"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bcr2016216784","DOI":"10.1136\/bcr-2016-216784","article-title":"Septic arthritis of the pubic symphysis","volume":"2017","author":"Cardoso","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1007\/s002560000242","article-title":"MR imaging of septic sacroiliitis","volume":"29","author":"Braun","year":"2000","journal-title":"Skelet. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"134","article-title":"Clinical and imaging characteristics of 110 patients with infectious sacroiliitis","volume":"59","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Zhonghua Nei Ke Za Zhi"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.5152\/eurjrheum.2019.18209","article-title":"Analysis of the early signs of septic sacroiliitis on computed tomography","volume":"6","author":"Sondag","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hermet, M., Minichiello, E., Flipo, R.M., Dubost, J.J., Allanore, Y., Ziza, J.M., Gaudin, P., Thomas, T., Dernis, E., and Glace, B. (2012). Infectious sacroiliitis: A retrospective, multicentre study of 39 adults. BMC Infect. Dis., 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-12-305"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1590\/S0104-11692006000400022","article-title":"Lombalgia na gesta\u00e7\u00e3o. Low back pain during gestation","volume":"14","author":"Novaes","year":"2006","journal-title":"Rev. Lat. Am. Enfermagem."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, C., Zou, Q., and Wei, H. (2024). The association of back pain with physical inactivity and hypothyroidism in pregnant women. J. Back Musculoskelet. Rehabil., 1\u20139.","DOI":"10.3233\/BMR-240086"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.3233\/BMR-171006","article-title":"The influence of gestational trimester, physical activity practice and weight gain on the low back and pelvic pain intensity in low risk pregnant women","volume":"32","author":"Cury","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Back Musculoskelet. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2831","DOI":"10.1097\/00007632-200212150-00020","article-title":"Incidence of four syndromes of pregnancy-related pelvic joint pain","volume":"27","author":"Albert","year":"2002","journal-title":"Spine"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"505","article-title":"Prognosis in four syndromes of pregnancy-related pelvic pain","volume":"80","author":"Albert","year":"2001","journal-title":"Acta Obs. Gynecol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1419","DOI":"10.1007\/s10067-015-2976-0","article-title":"Peripartum changes of the sacroiliac joints on MRI: Increasing mechanical load correlating with signs of edema and inflammation kindling spondyloarthropathy in the genetically prone","volume":"34","author":"Eshed","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/ket344","article-title":"The prevalence of inflammatory back pain in a UK primary care population","volume":"53","author":"Hamilton","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1097\/MAJ.0b013e318294457f","article-title":"The epidemiology of back pain, axial spondyloarthritis and HLA-B27 in the United States","volume":"345","author":"Reveille","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rdc.2012.09.003","article-title":"Epidemiology of spondyloarthritis","volume":"38","author":"Stolwijk","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rheum. Dis. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1111\/bph.13490","article-title":"Relaxin and insulin-like peptide 3 in the musculoskeletal system: From bench to bedside","volume":"174","author":"Ferlin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmpt.2021.10.001","article-title":"Association between Pregnancy-Related Hormones and Lumbopelvic Pain Characteristics in Pregnant Women: A Scoping Review","volume":"44","author":"Daneau","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Manip. Physiol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"e18619","article-title":"Sacroiliac Joint and Pelvic Dysfunction Due to Symphysiolysis in Postpartum Women","volume":"13","author":"Fiani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1007\/s00256-015-2289-z","article-title":"Postpartum sacral insufficiency fractures","volume":"45","author":"Yan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Skelet. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1617","DOI":"10.1007\/s00256-020-03700-9","article-title":"Influence of pregnancy\/childbirth on long-term bone marrow edema and subchondral sclerosis of sacroiliac joints","volume":"50","author":"Germann","year":"2021","journal-title":"Skelet. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1306","DOI":"10.2214\/AJR.17.19404","article-title":"Postpartum Bone Marrow Edema at the Sacroiliac Joints May Mimic Sacroiliitis of Axial Spondyloarthritis on MRI","volume":"211","author":"Agten","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Roentgenol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1002\/jmri.10073","article-title":"MRI of the pelvic ring joints postpartum: Normal and pathological findings","volume":"15","author":"Wurdinger","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Magn. Reson. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1243","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2007-963508","article-title":"Peripartale Ver\u00e4nderungen des Beckenringes: Wie sinnvoll ist die Magnetresonanztomografie? Peripartum changes of the pelvic ring: Usefulness of magnetic resonance imaging","volume":"179","author":"Hermann","year":"2007","journal-title":"Rofo"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2020-217208","article-title":"MRI of sacroiliac joints for the diagnosis of axial SpA: Prevalence of inflammatory and structural lesions in nulliparous, early postpartum and late postpartum women","volume":"79","author":"Hoballah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbspin.2015.08.013","article-title":"Sacroiliac joint edema by MRI: Far more often mechanical than inflammatory?","volume":"83","author":"Berthelot","year":"2016","journal-title":"Jt. Bone Spine"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1151","DOI":"10.1007\/s11547-019-01045-5","article-title":"MRI of the axial skeleton: Differentiating non-inflammatory diseases and axial spondyloarthritis: A review of current concepts and applications: Special issue on \u201cmusculoskeletal imaging of the inflammatory and degenerative joints: Current status and perspectives\u201d","volume":"124","author":"Zawaideh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Radiol. Med."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"e38935","article-title":"Osteitis condensans Ilii: An Uncommon Cause of Back Pain Masquerading as an Inflammatory Spondyloarthropathy","volume":"15","author":"Egbuchiem","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1007\/s00296-020-04582-9","article-title":"Osteitis condensans ilii: Current knowledge and diagnostic approach","volume":"40","author":"Parperis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rheumatol. Int."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.4103\/ara.ara_8_23","article-title":"Osteitis condensans Ilii: A Mini Review","volume":"3","author":"Dharmshaktu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Rheumatol. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1756-185X.2009.01378.x","article-title":"Osteitis condensans ilii: A significant association with sacroiliac joint tenderness in women","volume":"12","author":"Jenks","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1111\/1756-185X.13125","article-title":"Osteitis condensans ilii may demonstrate bone marrow edema on sacroiliac joint magnetic resonance imaging","volume":"21","author":"Ma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"503","article-title":"Osteites condensantes, a etiologie inconnue","volume":"10","author":"Sicard","year":"1926","journal-title":"J. Radiol. D\u2019electrol."},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"663","article-title":"Osteitis Condensans Ilei: Ein bisher nicht beschriebernes Krankheitsbild","volume":"37","author":"Barsony","year":"1928","journal-title":"Fortschr. Rontgen-Strahlen"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1136\/pgmj.2003.015370","article-title":"An uncommon cause of back pain in pregnancy","volume":"81","author":"Vadivelu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Postgrad. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"e4518","article-title":"Osteitis condensans Ilii: An Uncommon Cause of Back Pain","volume":"11","author":"Biswas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"666","article-title":"MRI Findings of the Sacroiliac Joints in Patients with Low Back Pain: Alternative Diagnosis to Inflammatory Sacroiliitis","volume":"19","author":"Eshed","year":"2017","journal-title":"Isr. Med. Assoc. J."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Williams, P.M., and Byerly, D.W. (2024). Osteitis Condensans Ilii. StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Testini, V., Eusebi, L., Guerra, F.S., Manantrizio, D., and Guglielmi, G. (2023). The promising role of DECT in the diagnosis of Osteitis Condensans Ilii: A case report. Acta Biomed., 94."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-158-8-201304160-00003","article-title":"Opportunistic screening for osteoporosis using abdominal computed tomography scans obtained for other indications","volume":"158","author":"Pickhardt","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fauny, M., Verhoeven, F., Allado, E., Albuisson, E., Pinzano, A., Morizot, C., Chary-Valckenaere, I., and Loeuille, D. (2021). Relationship between spinal structural damage on radiography and bone fragility on CT in ankylosing spondylitis patients. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-88838-9"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.2214\/AJR.15.15559","article-title":"Distinguishing Untreated Osteoblastic Metastases From Enostoses Using CT Attenuation Measurements","volume":"207","author":"Ulano","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Roentgenol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20190249","DOI":"10.1259\/bjr.20190249","article-title":"Bone islands incidentally detected on computed tomography: Frequency of enostosis and differentiation from untreated osteoblastic metastases based on CT attenuation value","volume":"92","author":"Sala","year":"2019","journal-title":"Br. J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rcl.2018.03.003","article-title":"Advanced Musculoskeletal Applications of Dual-Energy Computed Tomography","volume":"56","author":"Wong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Radiol. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"e51357","article-title":"Examining the Association between the Extent of Anterior Longitudinal Ligament Ossification Progression and Comorbidities in Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis","volume":"15","author":"Ishimura","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"2032","article-title":"The prevalence of diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis in Korea","volume":"31","author":"Kim","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1931","DOI":"10.1007\/s10067-023-06574-z","article-title":"Early stages of diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH) and chronic inflammation: The Camargo Cohort Study","volume":"42","author":"Pariente","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.2174\/1874312901408010116","article-title":"Metabolic factors in diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis\u2014A review of clinical data","volume":"8","author":"Pillai","year":"2014","journal-title":"Open Rheumatol. J."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1148\/15.3.513","article-title":"Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH): Forestier\u2019s disease with extraspinal manifestations","volume":"115","author":"Resnick","year":"1975","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1148\/119.3.559","article-title":"Radiographic and pathologic features of spinal involvement in diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH)","volume":"119","author":"Resnick","year":"1976","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1148\/radiology.140.3.7280223","article-title":"Radiographic features of the hand in diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH): Comparison with normal subjects and acromegalic patients","volume":"140","author":"Littlejohn","year":"1981","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.1976.03630070011006","article-title":"Diffuse skeletal abnormalities in Forestier disease","volume":"136","author":"Utsinger","year":"1976","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.2214\/AJR.16.16994","article-title":"CT Abnormalities in the Sacroiliac Joints of Patients with Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis","volume":"208","author":"Leibushor","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Roentgenol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3941\/jrcr.v16i11.4634","article-title":"Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis and Ankylosing Spondylitis: A Challenging Case and Review of the Literature","volume":"16","author":"Ghossan","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Radiol. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1007\/s11926-009-0046-9","article-title":"Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis: Differentiation from ankylosing spondylitis","volume":"11","author":"Olivieri","year":"2009","journal-title":"Curr. Rheumatol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yahara, Y., Yasuda, T., Kawaguchi, Y., Suzuki, K., Seki, S., Kondo, M., Makino, H., Kamei, K., Kanamori, M., and Kimura, T. (2020). Sacroiliac joint variation associated with diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis. BMC Musculoskelet. Disord., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12891-020-3105-z"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Takahashi, T., Yoshii, T., Mori, K., Kobayashi, S., Inoue, H., Tada, K., Tamura, N., Hirai, T., Sugimura, N., and Nagoshi, N. (2023). Comparison of radiological characteristics between diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis and ankylosing spondylitis: A multicenter study. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-28946-w"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1002\/acr.23244","article-title":"Imaging Findings Suggestive of Axial Spondyloarthritis in Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis","volume":"70","author":"Latourte","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arthritis Care Res."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2012.12.002","article-title":"Mode of delivery and persistence of pelvic girdle syndrome 6 months postpartum","volume":"208","author":"Bjelland","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Obs. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00202696","article-title":"Magnetic resonance appearance of sacral insufficiency fractures","volume":"19","author":"Brahme","year":"1990","journal-title":"Skelet. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1007\/s00256-008-0555-z","article-title":"Radiological features of superomedial iliac insufficiency fractures: A possible mimicker of metastatic disease","volume":"38","author":"Donovan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Skelet. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_101","first-page":"1568","article-title":"Fractures du sacrum par insuffisance osseuse. M\u00e9ta-analyse de 508 cas [Fractures of the sacrum caused by bone insufficiency. Meta-analysis of 508 cases]","volume":"26","author":"Finiels","year":"1997","journal-title":"Presse Med."},{"key":"ref_102","unstructured":"Dydyk, A.M., Forro, S.D., and Hanna, A. (2020). Sacroiliac Joint Injury. StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1327","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2014-206971","article-title":"European League Against Rheumatism (EULAR). EULAR recommendations for the use of imaging in the diagnosis and management of spondyloarthritis in clinical practice","volume":"74","author":"Mandl","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1502","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2016-210640","article-title":"Comparison of MRI with radiography for detecting structural lesions of the sacroiliac joint using CT as standard of reference: Results from the SIMACT study","volume":"76","author":"Diekhoff","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1984","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-012-2394-9","article-title":"Management of metastatic sacral tumours","volume":"21","author":"Quraishi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. Spine J."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2830","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.11383","article-title":"Role of adjuvant cryosurgery in intralesional treatment of sacral tumors","volume":"97","author":"Kollender","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_107","unstructured":"Ziu, E., Viswanathan, V.K., and Mesfin, F.B. (2024). Spinal Metastasis. StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.2174\/1573405617666210512011923","article-title":"Primary Tumors of the Sacrum: Imaging Findings","volume":"18","author":"Sambri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e806","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wneu.2020.03.094","article-title":"Diagnostic Challenges in Primary Sacral Tumors and the Yield of Computed Tomography-Guided Needle Biopsy in the Modern Era","volume":"138","author":"Safaee","year":"2020","journal-title":"World Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1136\/neurintsurg-2012-010347","article-title":"Multicenter study to assess the efficacy and safety of sacroplasty in patients with osteoporotic sacral insufficiency fractures or pathologic sacral lesions","volume":"5","author":"Kortman","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurointerv. Surg."},{"key":"ref_111","first-page":"89","article-title":"Primary bone tumors and pseudotumors of the lumbosacral spine","volume":"25","author":"Leone","year":"2000","journal-title":"Rays"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.4103\/jcrt.JCRT_289_20","article-title":"Giant cell tumor of femur with single pulmonary metastasis\u2014Yet another curative oligometastasis","volume":"20","author":"Abraham","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Cancer Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1007\/s002560050230","article-title":"Benign giant cell tumor of bone with osteosarcomatous transformation (\u201cdedifferentiated\u201d primary malignant GCT): Report of two cases","volume":"26","author":"Brien","year":"1997","journal-title":"Skelet. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1284","DOI":"10.1302\/0301-620X.104B12.BJJ-2022-0734.R1","article-title":"The management of sacral tumours","volume":"104-B","author":"Rose","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bone Jt. J."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.2214\/ajr.145.4.773","article-title":"Sacral destruction: Foraminal lines revisited","volume":"145","author":"Amorosa","year":"1985","journal-title":"Am. J. Roentgenol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anndiagpath.2014.08.006","article-title":"Clinical and morphological characteristics of osteoid osteoma and osteoblastoma: A retrospective single-center analysis of 204 patients","volume":"18","author":"Yalcinkaya","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Diagn. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1177\/09727531231190979","article-title":"Primary Spinal Intradural Extramedullary Ewing\u2019s Sarcoma\/Peripheral Neuroectodermal Tumour Masquerading Clinically as a Neurogenic Tumour: A Case Report and Review of Literature","volume":"30","author":"Praveen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcp\/83.5.594","article-title":"Neoplasms arising in Paget\u2019s disease of bone: A study of 82 cases","volume":"83","author":"Haibach","year":"1985","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jurik, A.G. (2023). Diagnostics of Sacroiliac Joint Differentials to Axial Spondyloarthritis Changes by Magnetic Resonance Imaging. J. Clin. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12031039"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1506","DOI":"10.1002\/art.42145","article-title":"Progressive Increase in Sacroiliac Joint and Spinal Lesions Detected on Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Healthy Individuals in Relation to Age","volume":"74","author":"Renson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"736","DOI":"10.1002\/art.40429","article-title":"Frequency and Anatomic Distribution of Magnetic Resonance Imaging Features in the Sacroiliac Joints of Young Athletes: Exploring \u201dBackground Noise\u201d Toward a Data-Driven Definition of Sacroiliitis in Early Spondyloarthritis","volume":"70","author":"Weber","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.3899\/jrheum.170904","article-title":"Age- and Sex-dependent Frequency of Fat Metaplasia and Other Structural Changes of the Sacroiliac Joints in Patients without Axial Spondyloarthritis: A Retrospective, Cross-sectional MRI Study","volume":"45","author":"Ziegeler","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.21037\/qims.2018.11.10","article-title":"Imaging of sacroiliitis: Current status, limitations and pitfalls","volume":"9","author":"Tsoi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Quant. Imaging Med. Surg."}],"container-title":["Journal of Personalized Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4426\/14\/8\/873\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:38:12Z","timestamp":1760110692000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4426\/14\/8\/873"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,17]]},"references-count":123,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8]]}},"alternative-id":["jpm14080873"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jpm14080873","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4426"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-4426","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,17]]}}}