{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]],"date-time":"2026-08-31T15:22:38Z","timestamp":1788189758667,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,29]],"date-time":"2024-10-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1730160000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JPM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: The present investigation evaluates the impact of 3D-printing technology on the design of pharmaceutical drugs, considering the feasibility issues and problems concerning technological, pharmaceutical, and clinical matters. This paper aims to review how 3D printing can modify the traditional manufacturing of drugs with personalized medicine-therapy outcomes being individualized and optimized, hence improving patients\u2019 compliance. Methods: The historical development of 3D printing from rapid prototyping to advanced pharmaceutical applications is discussed. A comparison is then made between traditional drug manufacturing approaches and the different techniques of 3D printing, including stereolithography, material extrusion, and binder jetting. Feasibility is assessed based on clinical trials and studies evaluating the efficacy, safety, bioavailability, and cost-effectiveness of 3D-printed drugs. Results: Current evidence indicates that material selection, regulatory barriers, and scalability issues are some of the major challenges to be overcome for wider acceptance. Other matters, such as ethical issues concerning patient data privacy, the misuse of 3D-printing technology, and technical complexities related to pharmaceutical 3D printing, are discussed further. Future applications also include bioprinting and in situ printing together with their implications for personalized drug delivery, which will also be discussed. Conclusions: This review stresses that intersectoral collaboration and the updating of regulatory frameworks are a must to overcome the barriers that confront 3D-printing applications in drug development. can could be an opportunity for innovative licensing and manufacturing techniques in pharmaceutical product development that can change the paradigm of personalized medicine through modern printing techniques.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm14111080","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,29]],"date-time":"2024-10-29T08:42:09Z","timestamp":1730191329000},"page":"1080","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Three-Dimensional Printing Technology in Drug Design and Development: Feasibility, Challenges, and Potential Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Maria C.","family":"Simon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering and Department of History of Medicine and Medical Ethics, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4746-0843","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Konstantinos","family":"Laios","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering and Department of History of Medicine and Medical Ethics, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ioannis","family":"Nikolakakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering and Department of History of Medicine and Medical Ethics, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1552-3168","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Theodore G.","family":"Papaioannou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering and Department of History of Medicine and Medical Ethics, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2015.10.039","article-title":"Fabrication of controlled-release budesonide tablets via desktop (FDM) 3D printing","volume":"496","author":"Goyanes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jddst.2019.06.004","article-title":"Design and development of zero-order drug release gastroretentive floating tablets fabricated by 3D printing technology","volume":"52","author":"Polabutta","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"7959","article-title":"3D Printing of Pharmaceuticals and the Role of Pharmacy","volume":"308","author":"Basit","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pharm. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u00fcrmen, H.K., \u00d6rte\u015f, F., and Arslan, Y.Z. (2020). Fundamentals of 3D printing and its applications in biomedical engineering. Materials Horizons, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-15-5424-7_2"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1208\/s12249-020-01905-8","article-title":"3D printing as a promising tool in personalized medicine","volume":"22","author":"Vaz","year":"2021","journal-title":"AAPS PharmSciTech"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microc.2023.109385","article-title":"Fundamentals, recent applications, and perspectives of 3D printing in sample preparation approaches","volume":"195","author":"Monteiro","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microchem. J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmt.2017.02.004","article-title":"Fundamentals and applications of 3D printing for novel materials","volume":"7","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Su, A., and Al\u2019Aref, S.J. (2018). History of 3D printing. Elsevier eBooks, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-803917-5.00001-8"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2015.09.028","article-title":"3D printing of five-in-one dose combination polypill with defined immediate and sustained release profiles","volume":"217","author":"Khaled","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2015.07.067","article-title":"3D printing of tablets containing multiple drugs with defined release profiles","volume":"494","author":"Khaled","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1080\/03091902.2020.1822942","article-title":"Aspects of 3D printed drugs","volume":"44","author":"Bhattacharjee","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2020.116519","article-title":"Hot melt extrusion paired fused deposition modeling 3D printing to develop hydroxypropyl cellulose based floating tablets of cinnarizine","volume":"246","author":"Vo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2018.08.011","article-title":"Combination of 3D printing technologies and compressed tablets for preparation of riboflavin floating tablet-in-device (TiD) systems","volume":"549","author":"Fu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, X., Li, H., Huang, L., Zhang, M., Fan, W., and Cui, L. (2020). 3D printing promotes the development of drugs. Biomed. Pharmacother., 131.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2020.110644"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lamichhane, S., Park, J., Sohn, D.H., and Lee, S. (2019). Customized novel design of 3D printed pregabalin tablets for intra-gastric floating and controlled release using fused deposition modeling. Pharmaceutics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics11110564"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1517\/17410541.2.1.29","article-title":"Personalized medicine and pharmacogenomics: Ethical and social challenges","volume":"2","author":"Lee","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pers. Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3376","DOI":"10.1208\/s12249-018-1105-1","article-title":"The effect of inkjet printing over polymeric films as potential buccal biologics delivery systems","volume":"19","author":"Reyes","year":"2018","journal-title":"AAPS PharmSciTech"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119820","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2020.119820","article-title":"Additive manufacturing in drug delivery applications: A review","volume":"589","author":"Reddy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acra.2018.03.022","article-title":"3D printed antibiotic and chemotherapeutic eluting catheters for potential use in interventional radiology","volume":"26","author":"Weisman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acad. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johnson, A., Caudill, C.L., Tumbleston, J.R., Bloomquist, C., Moga, K.A., Ermoshkin, A., Shirvanyants, D., Mecham, S.J., Luft, J.C., and DeSimone, J.M. (2016). Single-step fabrication of computationally designed microneedles by continuous liquid interface production. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0162518"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.powtec.2021.05.050","article-title":"Evaluation of lactose-based 3D powder bed printed pharmaceutical drug product tablets","volume":"390","author":"Dickhoff","year":"2021","journal-title":"Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huanbutta, K., Burapapadh, K., Sriamornsak, P., and Sangnim, T. (2023). Practical application of 3D printing for pharmaceuticals in hospitals and pharmacies. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15071877"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118651","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2019.118651","article-title":"Understanding the effects of formulation and process variables on the printlets quality manufactured by selective laser sintering 3D printing","volume":"570","author":"Ali","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msec.2014.01.003","article-title":"Relevance of PEG in PLA-based blends for tissue engineering 3D-printed scaffolds","volume":"38","author":"Serra","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. C"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymer.2019.04.013","article-title":"3D printing and characterization of hydrox-ypropyl methylcellulose and methylcellulose for biodegradable support structures","volume":"173","author":"Polamaplly","year":"2019","journal-title":"Polymer"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2016.06.012","article-title":"Physical and mechanical properties of PLA, and their functions in widespread applications\u2014A comprehensive review","volume":"107","author":"Farah","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1311","DOI":"10.1002\/pc.24069","article-title":"Microcrystalline cellulose reinforced polylactic acid biocomposite filaments for 3D printing","volume":"39","author":"Murphy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Polym. Compos."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1007\/s40005-020-00507-7","article-title":"Development of a zero-order kinetics drug release floating tablet with anti-flip-up design fabricated by 3D-printing technique","volume":"51","author":"Huanbutta","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Investig."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salaoru, I., Zhou, Z., Morris, P., and Gibbons, G.J. (2016). Inkjet printing of polyvinyl alcohol multilayers for additive manufacturing applications. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 133.","DOI":"10.1002\/app.43572"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martinez, P.R., Xu, X., Trenfield, S.J., Awad, A., Goyanes, \u00c1., Telford, R., Basit, A.W., and Gaisford, S. (2019). 3D printing of a multi-layered polypill containing six drugs using a novel stereolithographic method. Pharmaceutics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics11060274"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2024, October 10). Wohlers Associates. Wohlers Report 2019. Available online: https:\/\/wohlersassociates.com\/product\/wohlers-report-2019."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2018.05.006","article-title":"3D printed drug delivery and testing systems\u2014A fad or the future?","volume":"132","author":"Lim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1080\/10837450.2019.1684520","article-title":"Preparation and characterization of indomethacin loaded films by piezoelectric inkjet printing: A personalized medication approach","volume":"25","author":"Arshad","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pharm. Dev. Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2020.119430","article-title":"Formulation design for inkjet-based 3D printed tablets","volume":"584","author":"Sen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2017.06.082","article-title":"Selective laser sintering (SLS) 3D printing of medicines","volume":"529","author":"Fina","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2018.02.015","article-title":"Fabricating 3D printed orally disintegrating printlets using selective laser sintering","volume":"541","author":"Fina","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2017.09.003","article-title":"Fabrication of drug-loaded hydrogels with stereolithographic 3D printing","volume":"532","author":"Martinez","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119428","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2020.119428","article-title":"Stereolithography (SLA) 3D printing of ascorbic acid loaded hydrogels: A controlled release study","volume":"584","author":"Karakurt","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2757","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xphs.2020.05.022","article-title":"Fabrication of mucoadhesive buccal films for local administration of ketoprofen and lidocaine hydrochloride by combining fused deposition modeling and inkjet printing","volume":"109","author":"Eleftheriadis","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allahham, N., Fina, F., Marcuta, C., Kraschew, L., Mohr, W., Gaisford, S., Basit, A.W., and Goyanes, A. (2020). Selective laser sintering 3D printing of orally disintegrating printlets containing ondansetron. Pharmaceutics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics12020110"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fina, F., Goyanes, A., Rowland, M., Gaisford, S., and Basit, A.W. (2020). 3D printing of tunable zero-order release printlets. Polymers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym12081769"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.molpharmaceut.6b01054","article-title":"Development of oromucosal dosage forms by combining electrospinning and inkjet printing","volume":"14","author":"Palo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khalid, G.M., and Billa, N. (2022). Solid dispersion formulations by FDM 3D printing\u2014A review. Pharmaceutics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14040690"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msec.2019.110248","article-title":"3D printed microneedles for anticancer therapy of skin tumours","volume":"107","author":"Uddin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. C"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brambilla, C.R.M., Okafor-Muo, O.L., Hassanin, H., and ElShaer, A. (2021). 3D printing of oral solid formulations: A systematic review. Pharmaceutics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics13030358"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100037","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stlm.2021.100037","article-title":"3D printing in medicine: Technology overview and drug delivery applications","volume":"4","author":"Mohammed","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. 3D Print. Med."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"704","article-title":"Medical applications for 3D printing: Current and projected uses","volume":"39","author":"Ventola","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pharm. Ther."}],"container-title":["Journal of Personalized Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4426\/14\/11\/1080\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:23:13Z","timestamp":1760113393000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4426\/14\/11\/1080"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,29]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11]]}},"alternative-id":["jpm14111080"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jpm14111080","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4426"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-4426","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,29]]}}}