{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:32:45Z","timestamp":1760059965282,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,24]],"date-time":"2025-07-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753315200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JPM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Opioid use disorder (OUD) is a chronic disease that remains difficult to treat, even with significant improvements in available medications. While current treatments work well for some, they often do not account for the unique needs of individual patients, leading to less-than-ideal results. Precision medicine offers a new path forward by tailoring treatments to fit each person\u2019s genetic, psychological, and social needs. This review takes a close look at medications for OUD, including methadone, buprenorphine, and naltrexone, as well as long-acting options that may improve adherence and convenience. Beyond medications, the review highlights the importance of addressing mental health co-morbidities, trauma histories, and social factors like housing or support systems to create personalized care plans. The review also explores how emerging technologies, including artificial intelligence and digital health tools, can enhance how care is delivered. By identifying research gaps and challenges in implementing precision medicine into practice, this review emphasizes the potential to transform OUD treatment. A more individualized approach could improve outcomes, reduce relapse, and establish a new standard of care focused on recovery and patient well-being.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm15080328","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,24]],"date-time":"2025-07-24T09:05:12Z","timestamp":1753347912000},"page":"328","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Tailored Therapies in Addiction Medicine: Redefining Opioid Use Disorder Treatment with Precision Medicine"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Poorvanshi","family":"Alag","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4980-5734","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sandra","family":"Szafoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medical Sciences in Zabrze, Medical University of Silesia, 41-808 Zabrze, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michael Xincheng","family":"Ji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0034-7373","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agata Aleksandra","family":"Macionga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medical Sciences in Zabrze, Medical University of Silesia, 41-808 Zabrze, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Saad","family":"Nazir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2404-393X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gniewko","family":"Wi\u0119ckiewicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medical Sciences in Zabrze, Medical University of Silesia, 41-808 Zabrze, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2018.08.013","article-title":"Multicomorbidity of Chronic Diseases and Substance Use Disorders and Their Association with Hospitalization: Results from Electronic Health Records Data","volume":"192","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2024). Global Status Report on Alcohol and Health and Treatment of Substance Use Disorders, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1905","DOI":"10.1111\/add.14234","article-title":"Global Statistics on Alcohol, Tobacco and Illicit Drug Use: 2017 Status Report","volume":"113","author":"Peacock","year":"2018","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"43","article-title":"The Opioid Crisis: Prevalence and Markets of Opioids","volume":"34","author":"Gardner","year":"2022","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) U.S. Overdose Deaths Decrease in 2023, First Time Since 2018. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchs\/pressroom\/nchs_press_releases\/2024\/20240515.htm."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) (2024). European Drug Report 2024: Trends and Developments, European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). Available online: https:\/\/www.euda.europa.eu\/system\/files\/documents\/2024-06\/edr-2024-compiled-pdf-14.06.2024v2.pdf."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1280","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.241173","article-title":"Management of Opioid Use Disorder: 2024 Update to the National Clinical Practice Guideline","volume":"196","author":"Yakovenko","year":"2024","journal-title":"Can. Med. Assoc. J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1097\/HRP.0000000000000075","article-title":"Medication-Assisted Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder","volume":"23","author":"Connery","year":"2015","journal-title":"Harv. Rev. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ps.201300235","article-title":"Medication-Assisted Treatment With Methadone: Assessing the Evidence","volume":"65","author":"Fullerton","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Serv."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1683","DOI":"10.1111\/add.14991","article-title":"Opioid Agonist Treatment and Fatal Overdose Risk in a State-wide US Population Receiving Opioid Use Disorder Services","volume":"115","author":"Krawczyk","year":"2020","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108651","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2021.108651","article-title":"Barriers to Accessing Opioid Substitution Treatment for Opioid Use Disorder: A Systematic Review from the Client Perspective","volume":"221","author":"Hall","year":"2021","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1007\/s40263-018-0513-9","article-title":"Pharmacogenetics of Opioid Use Disorder Treatment","volume":"32","author":"Crist","year":"2018","journal-title":"CNS Drugs"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70008","DOI":"10.1002\/wics.70008","article-title":"Utilizing Machine Learning for Early Intervention and Risk Management in the Opioid Overdose Crisis","volume":"17","author":"Tai","year":"2025","journal-title":"WIREs Comput. Stat."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1080\/09540261.2024.2432369","article-title":"Artificial Intelligence-Driven and Technological Innovations in the Diagnosis and Management of Substance Use Disorders","volume":"37","author":"Tassinari","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"28","article-title":"Using Machine Learning to Predict Treatment Adherence in Patients on Medication for Opioid Use Disorder","volume":"17","author":"Brooks","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Addict. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108753","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsat.2022.108753","article-title":"A Cohort Study Examining the Relationship among Housing Status, Patient Characteristics, and Retention among Individuals Enrolled in Low-Barrier-to-Treatment-Access Methadone Maintenance Treatment","volume":"138","author":"Carmichael","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Subst. Abus. Treat."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2017.05.010","article-title":"Predictors of Buprenorphine Treatment Success of Opioid Dependence in Two Baltimore City Grassroots Recovery Programs","volume":"73","author":"Damian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Addict. Behav."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2019.06.020","article-title":"Medication Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder","volume":"87","author":"Bell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1097\/ADM.0000000000000166","article-title":"American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM) National Practice Guideline for the Use of Medications in the Treatment of Addiction Involving Opioid Use","volume":"9","author":"Kampman","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Addict. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1515\/jom-2021-0163","article-title":"Review of Medication-Assisted Treatment for Opioid Use Disorder","volume":"122","author":"Ghanem","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Osteopath. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1029","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2018.2143","article-title":"Receipt of Timely Addiction Treatment and Association of Early Medication Treatment With Retention in Care Among Youths With Opioid Use Disorder","volume":"172","author":"Hadland","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1097","DOI":"10.1093\/ajhp\/zxz105","article-title":"Medications for Management of Opioid Use Disorder","volume":"76","author":"Koehl","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Health Syst. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"692423","article-title":"The Continuing Care Model of Substance Use Treatment: What Works, and When Is \u201cEnough,\u201d \u201cEnough?","volume":"2014","author":"Proctor","year":"2014","journal-title":"\u201d Psychiatry J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1080\/J354v19n04_05","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of Methadone","volume":"19","author":"Lugo","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Pain Palliat. Care Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-150-6-200903170-00103","article-title":"QTc interval screening in methadone treatment","volume":"150","author":"Krantz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsat.2017.07.001","article-title":"Injectable naltrexone, oral naltrexone, and buprenorphine utilization and discontinuation among individuals treated for opioid use disorder in a United States commercially insured population","volume":"85","author":"Morgan","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Subst. Abuse Treat."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e007629","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2015-007629","article-title":"The relative risk of fatal poisoning by methadone or buprenorphine within the wider population of England and Wales","volume":"5","author":"Marteau","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.bp.108.055319","article-title":"Naltrexone implants after in-patient treatment for opioid dependence: Randomised controlled trial","volume":"194","author":"Lobmaier","year":"2009","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1002\/ddr.21789","article-title":"Biomarkers to predict staging and treatment response in opioid dependence: A narrative review","volume":"82","author":"Vorspan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Drug Dev. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2023.148407","article-title":"Association between methylation in the promoter region of the GAD2 gene and opioid use disorder","volume":"1812","author":"Tang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137468","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2023.137468","article-title":"Methylation and expression quantitative trait loci rs1799971 in the OPRM1 gene and rs4654327 in the OPRD1 gene are associated with opioid use disorder","volume":"814","author":"Yu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Banks, M.L., and Sprague, J.E. (2024). The dopamine 3 receptor as a candidate biomarker and therapeutic for opioid use disorder. Addict. Biol., 29.","DOI":"10.1111\/adb.13369"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1038\/s41397-021-00212-0","article-title":"Identification of a sex-stratified genetic algorithm for opioid addiction risk","volume":"21","author":"Bright","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pharmacogenom. J."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1089","DOI":"10.1002\/cpt.2864","article-title":"Genetic variants associated with opioid use disorder","volume":"113","author":"Freiermuth","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1089\/gtmb.2021.0280","article-title":"Significant Association of the Catechol-O-Methyltransferase Gene Polymorphism (rs4680) and Opioid Use Disorder in Asian Populations, but not Caucasian Populations: A Meta-analysis","volume":"26","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Genet. Test Mol. Biomark."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"932","DOI":"10.1002\/cpt.3338","article-title":"Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium Guideline for CYP2B6 Genotype and Methadone Therapy","volume":"116","author":"Robinson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.2217\/pgs-2020-0032","article-title":"Pharmacogenomics and prescription opioid use","volume":"22","author":"Benjeddou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pharmacogenomics"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1515\/revneuro-2016-0078","article-title":"Peripheral levels of BDNF and opiate-use disorder: Literature review and update","volume":"28","author":"Roncero","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsat.2018.06.001","article-title":"Developing an opioid use disorder treatment cascade: A review of quality measures","volume":"91","author":"Williams","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Subst. Abus. Treat."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1186\/s13011-021-00409-3","article-title":"Socioeconomic correlates of incident and fatal opioid overdose among Swedish people with opioid use disorder","volume":"16","author":"Dahlman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Subst. Abus. Treat. Prev. Policy"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209046","DOI":"10.1016\/j.josat.2023.209046","article-title":"Psychosocial challenges affecting patient-defined medication for opioid use disorder treatment outcomes in a low-income, underserved population: Application of the social-ecological framework","volume":"149","author":"Kleinman","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Subst. Use Addict. Treat."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1741","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0000000000002496","article-title":"Risk factors for opioid-use disorder and overdose","volume":"125","author":"Webster","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.37765\/ajmc.2021.88617","article-title":"Predicting opioid use disorder and associated risk factors in a Medicaid managed care population","volume":"27","author":"Gao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Manag. Care"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1016\/j.japh.2023.02.016","article-title":"The importance of social risk factors for patients diagnosed with opioid use disorder","volume":"63","author":"Arsene","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Am. Pharm. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1053\/j.semperi.2019.01.001","article-title":"The united states opioid epidemic","volume":"43","author":"Lyden","year":"2019","journal-title":"Semin. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Esguerra, A., and Weinandy, T.J. (2024). Factors predicting access to medications for opioid use disorder for housed and unhoused patients: A machine learning approach. PLoS ONE, 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0308791"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.1111\/dar.13832","article-title":"Opioid use, prescribing and fatal overdose patterns among racial\/ethnic minorities in the United States: A scoping review and conceptual risk environment model","volume":"43","author":"Ezell","year":"2024","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Rev."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108214","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsat.2020.108214","article-title":"Addressing racial & socioeconomic disparities in access to medications for opioid use disorder amid COVID-19","volume":"122","author":"Tiako","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Subst. Abus. Treat."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108849","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2021.108849","article-title":"Racial\/ethnic disparities in the use of medications for opioid use disorder (MOUD) and their effects on residential drug treatment outcomes in the US","volume":"226","author":"Stahler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsat.2016.12.010","article-title":"Long-term retention in office based opioid treatment with buprenorphine","volume":"74","author":"Weinstein","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Subst. Abus. Treat."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shah-Mohammadi, F., and Finkelstein, J. (2023). Identification of Subphenotypes of Opioid Use Disorder Using Unsupervised Machine Learning. Caring Is Sharing\u2013Exploiting the Value in Data for Health and Innovation, IOS Press.","DOI":"10.3233\/SHTI230299"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1007\/s13181-019-00715-0","article-title":"Opioid use disorder and prescribed opioid regimens: Evidence from commercial and Medicaid claims, 2005\u20132015","volume":"15","author":"Ali","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Med. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20162387","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2016-2387","article-title":"Trends in medical and nonmedical use of prescription opioids among US adolescents: 1976\u20132015","volume":"139","author":"McCabe","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108827","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsat.2022.108827","article-title":"Factors associated with clinician treatment recommendations for patients with a new diagnosis of opioid use disorder","volume":"141","author":"Lin","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Subst. Abus. Treat."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1080\/09540261.2018.1514295","article-title":"Systematic review of sex-based differences in opioid-based effects","volume":"30","author":"Huhn","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1760","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)33078-2","article-title":"Management of opioid use disorder in the USA: Present status and future directions","volume":"393","author":"Blanco","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2022.109507","article-title":"Identifying key risk factors for premature discontinuation of opioid use disorder treatment in the United States: A predictive modeling study","volume":"237","author":"Stafford","year":"2022","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2434704","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2024.34704","article-title":"Factors associated with the availability of medications for opioid use disorder in US jails","volume":"7","author":"Balawajder","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ps.202100239","article-title":"Factors associated with initial treatment choice, engagement, and discontinuation for patients with opioid use disorder","volume":"73","author":"Mutter","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Serv."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1467","DOI":"10.1080\/10826084.2021.1936051","article-title":"Stigma surrounding the use of medically assisted treatment for opioid use disorder","volume":"56","author":"Witte","year":"2021","journal-title":"Subst. Use Misuse"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e190968","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2019.0968","article-title":"Evaluation of machine-learning algorithms for predicting opioid overdose risk among medicare beneficiaries with opioid prescriptions","volume":"2","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107839","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2020.107839","article-title":"Understanding opioid use disorder (OUD) using tree-based classifiers","volume":"208","author":"Wadekar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kotsireas, I.S., Nagurney, A., Pardalos, P.M., Pickl, S.W., and Vogiatzis, C. (2024). Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Precision Health: An Overview of Methods, Challenges, and Future Directions. Dynamics of Disasters, Springer. Springer Optimization and Its Applications.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-74006-0"},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Ajayi, R. (2025). AI-powered innovations for managing complex mental health conditions and addiction treatments. Int. Res. J. Mod. Eng. Technol. Sci., 7."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miranda, O., Fan, P., Qi, X., Wang, H., Brannock, M.D., Kosten, T.R., Ryan, N.D., Kirisci, L., and Wang, L. (2024). DeepBiomarker2: Prediction of Alcohol and Substance Use Disorder Risk in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Patients Using Electronic Medical Records and Multiple Social Determinants of Health. J. Pers. Med., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm14010094"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suva, M., and Bhatia, G. (2024). Artificial Intelligence in Addiction: Challenges and Opportunities. Indian. J. Psychol. Med.","DOI":"10.1177\/02537176241274148"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xing, Y., Yang, K., Lu, A., Mackie, K., and Guo, F. (2024). Sensors and Devices Guided by Artificial Intelligence for Personalized Pain Medicine. Cyborg. Bionic. Syst., 5.","DOI":"10.34133\/cbsystems.0160"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roth, C.B., Papassotiropoulos, A., Br\u00fchl, A.B., Lang, U.E., and Huber, C.G. (2021). Psychiatry in the Digital Age: A Blessing or a Curse?. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18168302"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2453913","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2024.53913","article-title":"Utility of Candidate Genes From an Algorithm Designed to Predict Genetic Risk for Opioid Use Disorder","volume":"8","author":"Davis","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"}],"container-title":["Journal of Personalized Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4426\/15\/8\/328\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:15:05Z","timestamp":1760033705000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4426\/15\/8\/328"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,24]]},"references-count":69,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8]]}},"alternative-id":["jpm15080328"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jpm15080328","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4426"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2075-4426"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,24]]}}}