{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:52:20Z","timestamp":1787028740738,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,1]],"date-time":"2025-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754006400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Federal Ministry for Research (BMBF)\/German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD)"},{"name":"Collaborative Research Center 1118 (CRC1118) by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG)"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JPM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Restrictive lung disease (RLD) is a potential complication in type 2 diabetes (T2D), but its relationship with insulin resistance and liver-related metabolic dysfunction remains unclear. This study evaluated the association between lung function and metabolic markers in T2D and retrospectively assessed whether metabolic improvements from dietary intervention were accompanied by changes in lung function. Methods: This cross-sectional analysis included 184 individuals (101 with T2D, 33 with prediabetes, and 50 glucose-tolerant individuals). Lung function parameters\u2014vital capacity (VC), total lung capacity by plethysmography (TLC-B), and diffusion capacity for carbon monoxide (TLCO)\u2014were assessed alongside metabolic markers including HOMA2-IR, fatty liver index (FLI), NAFLD score, and Fibrosis-4 index (FIB-4). In a subset of 54 T2D participants, lung function was reassessed after six months following either a fasting-mimicking diet (FMD, n = 14), Mediterranean diet (n = 13), or no dietary intervention (n = 27). Results: T2D participants had significantly lower VC and TLC-B compared to glucose-tolerant and prediabetic individuals, with 18\u201321% falling below clinical thresholds for RLD. Lung volumes were negatively correlated with HOMA2-IR, FLI, NAFLD score, and FIB-4 across the cohort and within the T2D group. Although the FMD intervention led to significant improvements in HOMA2-IR and FLI, no corresponding changes in lung function were observed over the six-month period. Conclusions: Restrictive lung impairment in T2D is associated with insulin resistance and markers of liver steatosis and fibrosis. While short-term dietary interventions can improve metabolic parameters, their effect on lung function may require a longer duration or additional interventions and targeted follow-up. These findings highlight the relevance of pulmonary assessment in individuals with metabolic dysfunction.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm15080340","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,4]],"date-time":"2025-08-04T13:11:11Z","timestamp":1754313071000},"page":"340","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Exploring the Relationship Between Insulin Resistance, Liver Health, and Restrictive Lung Diseases in Type 2 Diabetes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Mani","family":"Roshan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Metabolism and Clinical Chemistry (Internal Medicine 1), Heidelberg University Hospital, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany"},{"name":"German Centre for Diabetes Research (DZD), Helmholtz Centre Munich, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christian","family":"Mudrack","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Metabolism and Clinical Chemistry (Internal Medicine 1), Heidelberg University Hospital, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6051-6696","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alba","family":"Sulaj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Metabolism and Clinical Chemistry (Internal Medicine 1), Heidelberg University Hospital, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany"},{"name":"German Centre for Diabetes Research (DZD), Helmholtz Centre Munich, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-7297-2714","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ekaterina","family":"von Rauchhaupt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Metabolism and Clinical Chemistry (Internal Medicine 1), Heidelberg University Hospital, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany"},{"name":"German Centre for Diabetes Research (DZD), Helmholtz Centre Munich, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3232-4515","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas","family":"Fleming","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Metabolism and Clinical Chemistry (Internal Medicine 1), Heidelberg University Hospital, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany"},{"name":"German Centre for Diabetes Research (DZD), Helmholtz Centre Munich, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lukas","family":"Schimpfle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Metabolism and Clinical Chemistry (Internal Medicine 1), Heidelberg University Hospital, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany"},{"name":"German Centre for Diabetes Research (DZD), Helmholtz Centre Munich, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lukas","family":"Seebauer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Metabolism and Clinical Chemistry (Internal Medicine 1), Heidelberg University Hospital, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany"},{"name":"German Centre for Diabetes Research (DZD), Helmholtz Centre Munich, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Viktoria","family":"Flegka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Metabolism and Clinical Chemistry (Internal Medicine 1), Heidelberg University Hospital, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany"},{"name":"German Centre for Diabetes Research (DZD), Helmholtz Centre Munich, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Valter D.","family":"Longo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Longevity Institute, School of Gerontology,  Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA"},{"name":"FIRC Institute of Molecular Oncology, Italian Foundation for Cancer Research Institute of Molecular Oncology, 20139 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-1779-7550","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elisabeth","family":"Kliemank","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Metabolism and Clinical Chemistry (Internal Medicine 1), Heidelberg University Hospital, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany"},{"name":"German Centre for Diabetes Research (DZD), Helmholtz Centre Munich, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephan","family":"Herzig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"German Centre for Diabetes Research (DZD), Helmholtz Centre Munich, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany"},{"name":"Institute for Diabetes and Cancer, Helmholtz Center Munich, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany"},{"name":"Joint Heidelberg-IDC Translational Diabetes Program, Internal Medicine I, Heidelberg University Hospital, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Hohneck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Metabolism and Clinical Chemistry (Internal Medicine 1), Heidelberg University Hospital, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany"},{"name":"German Centre for Diabetes Research (DZD), Helmholtz Centre Munich, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zoltan","family":"Kender","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Metabolism and Clinical Chemistry (Internal Medicine 1), Heidelberg University Hospital, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany"},{"name":"German Centre for Diabetes Research (DZD), Helmholtz Centre Munich, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Julia","family":"Szendroedi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Metabolism and Clinical Chemistry (Internal Medicine 1), Heidelberg University Hospital, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany"},{"name":"German Centre for Diabetes Research (DZD), Helmholtz Centre Munich, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany"},{"name":"Institute for Diabetes and Cancer, Helmholtz Center Munich, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany"},{"name":"Joint Heidelberg-IDC Translational Diabetes Program, Internal Medicine I, Heidelberg University Hospital, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefan","family":"Kopf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Metabolism and Clinical Chemistry (Internal Medicine 1), Heidelberg University Hospital, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany"},{"name":"German Centre for Diabetes Research (DZD), Helmholtz Centre Munich, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-5491.2010.03073.x","article-title":"Systematic Review of the Association between Lung Function and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"27","author":"Klein","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabet. 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