{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T16:29:30Z","timestamp":1789403370559,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759968000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Universidad Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar, Vicerrector\u00eda de Investigaci\u00f3n, Extensi\u00f3n e Innovaci\u00f3n, Barranquilla, Colombia"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JPM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Pharmacogenomics offers critical insights into interindividual variability in drug response, especially in complex diseases such as diabetes mellitus. However, most pharmacogenomic evidence is derived from populations of European ancestry, limiting its applicability in admixed and underrepresented populations. In Colombia, the lack of population-specific data hampers the implementation of precision medicine strategies in diabetes care. The aim of this study was to identify pharmacogenomic variants significantly associated with diabetes and exhibiting differential allele frequencies between Colombian populations of African and European ancestry. Methods: We extracted 115 variant annotations related to diabetes from PharmGKB and filtered them for statistical significance and availability of allele frequency data. Fourteen single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were compared across five Colombian populations using the C\u00d3DIGO genomic diversity database. Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed to assess genetic clustering, and Pearson correlation coefficients were used to assess pharmacogenomic similarity. Results: PCA revealed distinct genetic clustering patterns that aligned with geographical distribution and ancestral origins. Pharmacogenomic divergence was observed between African and European ancestry groups in Colombia, with certain SNPs (e.g., rs8192675-C for metformin, rs7754840-C for DPP-4 inhibitors) showing 2- to 3-fold higher frequency in African ancestry populations. The bibliometric analysis revealed that 76.1% of studies originated from high-income countries and 68.4% of participants were of European ancestry. No studies originated from Africa or low-income countries. Conclusions: Marked ancestry-based differences in pharmacogenomic variant frequencies in Colombian populations may impact drug efficacy and risk of diabetes. The global literature shows a strong geographic and economic bias, underscoring the need for inclusive, population-specific pharmacogenomic research. These findings offer a foundation for implementing precision diabetes therapies in Latin America and advancing equitable genomic medicine.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm15100481","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T10:35:36Z","timestamp":1760006136000},"page":"481","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Pharmacogenomics in Diabetes: Population-Specific Insights from Colombia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6742-3185","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David A.","family":"Hernandez-Paez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Meta-Research and Scientometrics in Biomedical Sciences, Barranquilla 080002, Colombia"},{"name":"Grupo Prometheus y Biomedicina Aplicada a las Ciencias Clinicas, School of Medicine, Universidad de Cartagena, Cartagena 130001, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2445-3680","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Johana","family":"Galv\u00e1n-Barrios","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Scientometrics and Evidence-Based Research Unit, Department of Health Sciences, Universidad de la Costa, Barranquilla 080002, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kevin Fernando","family":"Montoya-Quintero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias para la Salud, Universidad de Manizales, Manizales 170001, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Indiana Luz Rojas","family":"Torres","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Vida, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar, Barranquilla 080001, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"GBD 2021 Diabetes Collaborators (2023). 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