{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T06:34:56Z","timestamp":1791527696757,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":112,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]],"date-time":"2026-01-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767312000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JPM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Growth Differentiation Factor-15 (GDF-15) is a stress-responsive cytokine belonging to the Transforming Growth Factor-beta (TGF-\u03b2) superfamily. Initially identified as macrophage inhibitory cytokine-1 (MIC-1), GDF-15 is expressed in various tissues and markedly upregulated under pathological conditions involving inflammation, oxidative stress, and tissue injury. Notably, GDF-15 upregulation has been associated with several cardiovascular events, such as heart failure, atrial fibrillation, atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease, and stroke. Furthermore, it has been observed that GDF-15, either alone or in combination with other cardiac biomarkers, can provide valuable complementary information enhancing risk assessment, early detection of cardiovascular events, and prediction of adverse outcomes. GDF-15 can be measured in various body fluids, using different methods. Immunoassays are widely employed and offer good sensitivity and reproducibility; however, variability between methods and potential interference from genetic variants highlight the need for standardization. This review summarizes current insights into GDF-15, with emphasis on its quantification methods, biological functions in cardiovascular diseases, and its emerging role as a diagnostic and prognostic biomarker.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm16010016","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]],"date-time":"2026-01-02T09:18:56Z","timestamp":1767345536000},"page":"16","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Growth Differentiation Factor-15 as an Emerging Biomarker in Cardiology: Diagnostic and Prognostic Implications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-8031-5884","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carla","family":"Lombardi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, \u201cA. Gemelli\u201d Hospital Foundation IRCCS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-1428-8985","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martina","family":"Marandola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Basic Biotechnological Sciences, Intensive Care and Perioperative Clinics, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, Largo F. Vito, 1, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9591-4830","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valentina","family":"Loria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Emergency, Anesthesiological and Reanimation Sciences, \u201cA. Gemelli\u201d Hospital Foundation IRCCS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9168-3174","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Urbani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, \u201cA. Gemelli\u201d Hospital Foundation IRCCS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Basic Biotechnological Sciences, Intensive Care and Perioperative Clinics, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, Largo F. Vito, 1, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-8528-7533","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Silvia","family":"Baroni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, \u201cA. Gemelli\u201d Hospital Foundation IRCCS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Basic Biotechnological Sciences, Intensive Care and Perioperative Clinics, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, Largo F. Vito, 1, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO) (2025, November 05). Cardiovascular Diseases. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/health-topics\/cardiovascular-diseases."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Netala, V.R., Hou, T., Wang, Y., Zhang, Z., and Teertam, S.K. (2025). Cardiovascular Biomarkers: Tools for Precision Diagnosis and Prognosis. Int. J. Mol. 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