{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T00:47:34Z","timestamp":1792802854111,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772755200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JPM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a major contributor to global respiratory morbidity and exhibits substantial sex- and gender-related differences in incidence, phenotype, pathophysiology, and outcomes across the life course. Historically regarded as a predominantly male disease due to higher smoking rates, COPD is now increasingly recognized among women, reflecting changing exposure patterns and enhanced diagnostic attention. Moreover, evidence indicates that women may be more biologically susceptible to the harmful effects of tobacco smoke and often develop COPD at younger ages. Clinical manifestations also differ, with women more frequently reporting dyspnea, anxiety, and depression, whereas men may exhibit more cough and sputum production. Imaging studies suggest that airway-predominant disease is more common in women, while men are more likely to demonstrate emphysema-predominant patterns. Furthermore, women face an increased risk of exacerbation, yet they are more likely to experience underdiagnosis or misdiagnosis. Treatment responses and comorbidity patterns also show sex- and gender-related variations. Despite these differences, most clinical guidelines and therapeutic strategies do not differentiate by sex and gender, highlighting a gap in personalized COPD management. Overall, growing evidence underscores the importance of incorporating sex and gender as biological and sociocultural variables in COPD research, diagnosis, and treatment. Recognizing sex\/gender-specific risk profiles, symptom patterns, and disease phenotypes may improve early detection and enable more targeted, effective interventions. This narrative synthesis, derived from a meticulous search in PubMed and the critical selection of 74 articles from the 448 identified originally, integrates evidence from guideline statements, registry studies, mechanistic and preclinical research, imaging and physiology investigations, systematic reviews, and randomized controlled trials that report sex- and gender-disaggregated data.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm16030152","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T14:43:07Z","timestamp":1772808187000},"page":"152","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Sex and Gender in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Does It Matter?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8806-2561","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christos","family":"Kyriakopoulos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Respiratory Medicine Department, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ioannina, 45500 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Georgios","family":"Hillas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"2nd Respiratory Medicine Department, \u201cAttikon\u201d University Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-0160-8445","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonia","family":"Assioura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Respiratory Medicine Department, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ioannina, 45500 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anastasia","family":"Papanikolaou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Respiratory Medicine Department, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ioannina, 45500 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vasileios","family":"Angelopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Respiratory Medicine Department, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ioannina, 45500 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0774-3942","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Konstantinos","family":"Kostikas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Respiratory Medicine Department, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ioannina, 45500 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Athena","family":"Gogali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Respiratory Medicine Department, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ioannina, 45500 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Becker, T., Chin, M., and Bates, N. 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