{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T12:09:54Z","timestamp":1785413394563,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785369600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000051","name":"National Human Genome Research Institute","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1R21-HG011337-01A1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R21-HG011337-01A1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000051","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["1R21-HG011337-01A1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R21-HG011337-01A1"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00baak391","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Pers. Med.","JPM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Pharmacogenetic (PGx) testing could identify actionable drug\u2013gene interactions, reducing the risks of inappropriate prescribing of certain medications in some patients. An area of growing public health concern is rising global rates of depression and antidepressant use over the last two decades. Prior research has elucidated perspectives of healthcare providers who prescribe antidepressants regarding the clinical utility of genetic information, including PGx testing, but there is a gap in understanding how individual perspectives and systemic contextual factors may combine to influence PGx testing adoption. Objective: The objective of this study was to elucidate combinations of individual and contextual conditions associated with willingness to adopt PGx testing for Cytochrome P450 Subfamily IID, Polypeptide 6 (CYP2D6) and Subfamily IIC, Polypeptide 19 (CYP2C19) among antidepressant prescribers. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional, mixed-methods study using structured questionnaires and semi-structured interviews with healthcare providers who prescribe antidepressants within their scope of practice across four healthcare systems in the United States. We collected data on implementation science concepts from the Theoretical Domains Framework, the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR), and the Implementation Outcomes Framework. Coincidence analysis (CNA), a case-based, Boolean logic-based method that identifies minimally sufficient combinations of conditions that lead to a particular outcome, was used to identify combinations of conditions for PGx test adoption among antidepressant prescribers. Interviews were also conducted with 10 patients who received pharmacogenetic testing within these healthcare systems to contextualize findings with patient perspectives. Results: Prescribers adopted PGx testing when they believed it would be beneficial to patients and were not deterred by cost-related concerns; the combination of these conditions led to PGx adoption in the most highly supported CNA model. Patient perspectives were also consistent with the selected model, with data suggesting they may have greater willingness to tolerate costs when they perceived or experienced benefits from testing. Conclusions: Insights from this study may be used by health system administrators and public health policymakers to inform future PGx implementation strategies that enhance uptake and awareness of existing evidence for clinical benefits of PGx testing and mitigate cost-related barriers to adoption.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm16080411","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T11:38:54Z","timestamp":1785411534000},"page":"411","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Factors Facilitating Adoption of Pharmacogenetic Testing by Prescribers of Antidepressants in Four US Health Systems: A Multi-Site Cross-Sectional PGx Implementation Science Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4976-0628","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alice B.","family":"Popejoy","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health Sciences, UC Davis School of Medicine, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Deborah","family":"Cragun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Community Health Sciences, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Megan C.","family":"Roberts","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lisa M.","family":"Bendz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Medication Policy and Drug Information, Department of Pharmacy, Duke University Hospital, Durham, NC 27710, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sarah","family":"Gonzales","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Population Health Sciences, School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8817-7406","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susanne B.","family":"Haga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Precision Health, School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, Division of General Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7655-3096","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"R. Ryanne","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Division of General Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA"},{"name":"23andMe, Palo Alto, CA 94306, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5089-9286","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Natasha J.","family":"Petry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sanford Health Imagenetics, Sioux Falls, SD 57105, USA"},{"name":"Department of Pharmacy Practice, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6417-3961","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laura B.","family":"Ramsey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Innovation, Children\u2019s Mercy Hospital, Kansas City, MO 64108, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ryley","family":"Uber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Pharmacy Innovation and Outcomes, Geisinger, Danville, PA 17822, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kaniz","family":"Momin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6640-2510","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nina R.","family":"Sperber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Population Health Sciences, School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA"},{"name":"Center of Innovation to Accelerate Discovery and Practice Transformation (ADAPT), Durham VA Health Care System, Durham, NC 27705, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"GENDEP Investigators, MARS Investigators, and STAR*D Investigators (2013). 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