{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T11:52:11Z","timestamp":1791978731370,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791849600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791849600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Laws"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This article examines the extent to which private technology companies bear responsibility for respecting human rights, particularly freedom of expression, when governing social media content through artificial intelligence (AI), and how that responsibility relates to the legal obligations of States. It focuses on the rule-of-law complexities created by the interaction between territorially based public regulation and transnational platform governance. Through a comparative analysis of domestic law and platform practice, the article assesses how AI-mediated content moderation affects online expression. The revised analysis is limited to India, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Afghanistan as selected comparative cases; it distinguishes State duties from the corporate responsibility to respect human rights, and treats AI-mediated moderation as including automated detection, classification, recommendation, down-ranking, removal and account restrictions. It proposes a seven-element human-rights test for AI-mediated moderation: legality, legitimate aim, necessity, proportionality, transparency, procedural fairness and effective remedy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/laws15050138","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T15:09:26Z","timestamp":1791904166000},"page":"138","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Exploring the Role of AI in Social Media Regulation: A Comparative Analysis of Selected South Asian Countries and the Actions of Major Technology Platforms"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Taskin","family":"Tanika","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Law, BRAC University, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6830-3508","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Upal","family":"Oikya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Law, BRAC University, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sadam","family":"Awaisheh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Public Law Department, Al-Ahliyya Amman University, Amman 19111, Jordan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anas","family":"Abdelrahman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Law, Faculty of Sharia and Law, University of Tabuk, Tabuk 71491, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Ahmet Y\u0131ld\u0131r\u0131m v Turkey (2012). Application No. 3111\/10. European Court of Human Rights, European Court of Human Rights. Available online: https:\/\/hudoc.echr.coe.int\/eng?i=001-115705."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clsr.2026.106396","article-title":"Third-Party Countermeasures in Cyberspace: Reconciling State Practice with the Law of State Responsibility","volume":"63","author":"Alkuwari","year":"2026","journal-title":"Computer Law & Security Review"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Amnesty International (2026, July 15). Human Rights in Afghanistan. Available online: https:\/\/www.amnesty.org\/en\/location\/asia-and-the-pacific\/south-asia\/afghanistan\/report-afghanistan\/."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Anuradha Bhasin v Union of India (2026, July 15). (2020) 3 SCC 637. Supreme Court of India, Available online: https:\/\/api.sci.gov.in\/supremecourt\/2019\/28817\/28817_2019_2_1501_19350_Judgement_10-Jan-2020.pdf."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"A v Secretary of State for the Home Department (2026, July 15). [2004] UKHL 56. House of Lords. Available online: https:\/\/www.bailii.org\/uk\/cases\/UKHL\/2004\/56.html."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"e21","article-title":"Meta\u2019s AI Moderation and Free Speech: Ongoing Challenges in the Global South","volume":"1","author":"Balendra","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cambridge Forum on AI: Law and Governance"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Bangladesh (2026, July 15). Cyber Security Act 2026 (Act No. 81 of 2026). Act No. 99 of 2026, Available online: https:\/\/bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd\/act-print-1710.html."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Bangladesh (2026, July 15). Cyber Security (Amendment) Act 2026. Act No. 99 of 2026, Available online: https:\/\/bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd\/act-print-1728.html."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"110","article-title":"Understanding Influence Operations in Social Media","volume":"19","author":"Bergh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Information Warfare"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Bhatia, Aliya, and Elswah, Mona (2025). Moderating Tamil Content on Social Media, Center for Democracy & Technology."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Bickert, Monika, and Fishman, Brian (2026, July 15). Hard Questions: How We Counter Terrorism, Meta, Available online: https:\/\/newsroom.fb.com\/news\/2017\/06\/how-we-counter-terrorism\/."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Bradshaw, Samantha, Bailey, Hannah, and Howard, Philip N. (2021). Industrialized Disinformation: 2020 Global Inventory of Organized Social Media Manipulation, Programme on Democracy & Technology, Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford. Available online: https:\/\/demtech.oii.ox.ac.uk\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/12\/2021\/01\/CyberTroop-Report20-FINALv.3.pdf."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/17579961.2015.1052642","article-title":"In the Year 2061: From Law to Technological Management","volume":"7","author":"Brownsword","year":"2015","journal-title":"Law, Innovation and Technology"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Cengiz and Others v Turkey (2015). Applications Nos. 48226\/10 and 14027\/11, European Court of Human Rights. Available online: https:\/\/hudoc.echr.coe.int\/eng?i=001-159188."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"55","article-title":"National Security by Platform","volume":"25","author":"Chachko","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stanford Technology Law Review"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Council of Europe (2001). Convention on Cybercrime, ETS No. 185, Council of Europe.. Available online: https:\/\/www.coe.int\/en\/web\/conventions\/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=185."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Council of Europe (2024). Framework Convention on Artificial Intelligence and Human Rights, Democracy and the Rule of Law, CETS No. 225, Council of Europe. Opened for signature September 5."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Desai, Deval, and Berg, Louis-Alexandre (2013). Rule of Law and Development: Integrating Rule of Law into the Post-2015 Framework, World Bank."},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_19.1","unstructured":"European Parliament and Council (2022). Regulation"},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_19.2","unstructured":"(EU) 2022\/2065 on a Single Market for Digital Services (Digital Services Act), OJ L 277, European Parliament and Council."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Google Transparency Report (2026, September 18). YouTube Community Guidelines Enforcement (January\u2013March 2026). Available online: https:\/\/transparencyreport.google.com\/youtube-policy\/removals."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Google\/YouTube Help (2026, September 18). How YouTube Reviews Content. YouTube Help. Available online: https:\/\/support.google.com\/youtube\/answer\/13304829?hl=en."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2053951719897945","DOI":"10.1177\/2053951719897945","article-title":"Algorithmic Content Moderation: Technical and Political Challenges in the Automation of Platform Governance","volume":"7","author":"Gorwa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Big Data & Society"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Human Rights Watch (2023). Submission to the Universal Periodic Review of Bangladesh, Human Rights Watch. Available online: https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/news\/2023\/04\/05\/submission-universal-periodic-review-bangladesh."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"India (2025). Digital Personal Data Protection Act 2023 (Standard No. Act No. 22 of 2023, G.S.R. 843(E))."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"India (2026). Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules 2021, as Amended by G.S.R. 120(E) (10 February 2026; Effective 20 February 2026), Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (2026, July 15). Penal Code, Official Gazette No. 1260 (15 May 2017), Especially Art. 863. Available online: https:\/\/natlex.ilo.org\/dyn\/natlex2\/natlex2\/files\/download\/105003\/AFG105003%20Ara%20FULL.PDF."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kavanagh, Camino, Carr, Madeline, Bosco, Francesca, and Hadley, Adam (2017). Terrorist Use of the Internet and Cyberspace: Issues and Responses, IOS Press.","DOI":"10.3233\/978-1-61499-765-8-1"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"1","article-title":"Terrorism, the Internet, and Propaganda: A Deadly Combination","volume":"9","author":"Lieberman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of National Security Law & Policy"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Manila Principles (2026, July 15). Manila Principles on Intermediary Liability: Best Practices Guidelines for Limiting Intermediary Liability for Content to Promote Freedom of Expression and Innovation. Version 1.0, March 24. Available online: https:\/\/manilaprinciples.org\/."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Meta (2025). More Speech and Fewer Mistakes, Meta. updated February 6."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Meta (2026). Boosting Your Support and Safety on Meta\u2019s Apps with AI, Meta."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Ministry of Information Technology and Telecommunication (2021). National Cyber Security Policy 2021, Government of Pakistan."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"National Crime Records Bureau (2026, July 15). Crime in India 2021, Available online: https:\/\/www.ncrb.gov.in\/uploads\/nationalcrimerecordsbureau\/custom\/1696831798CII2021Volume1.pdf."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Naweed, Maham, and Khanum, Khadija Almus (2025). Policy Brief PECA 2025: A Dispassionate Analysis, Islamabad Policy Research Institute."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Oversight Board (2021). Punjabi Concern over the RSS in India, Case 2021-003-FB-UA, Oversight Board."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Pakistan (2026, July 15). Removal and Blocking of Unlawful Online Content (Procedure, Oversight and Safeguards) Rules 2021, S.R.O. 1343(I)\/2021 (13 October 2021). Available online: https:\/\/cyrilla.org\/api\/files\/1734944536745wnc4fxe401j.pdf."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Pakistan (2026, July 15). Prevention of Electronic Crimes Act 2016, as Amended by the Prevention of Electronic Crimes (Amendment) Act 2025 (Act No. II of 2025), Gazette of Pakistan (29 January 2025), Available online: https:\/\/www.pakistancode.gov.pk\/pdffiles\/administrator6a061efe0ed5bd153fa8b79b8eb4cba7.pdf."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Shane, Scott (2026, July 15). In \u2018Watershed Moment,\u2019 YouTube Blocks Extremist Cleric\u2019s Message, The New York Times, Available online: https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2017\/11\/12\/us\/politics\/youtube-terrorism-anwar-al-awlaki.html."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.5038\/1944-0472.4.4.8","article-title":"Radicalization and the Use of Social Media","volume":"4","author":"Thompson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Strategic Security"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"UN Commission on Human Rights (1985). Siracusa Principles on the Limitation and Derogation Provisions in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, UN Doc E\/CN.4\/1985\/4, Annex, UN Commission on Human Rights."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"UNESCO (2023). Guidelines for the Governance of Digital Platforms: Safeguarding Freedom of Expression and Access to Information Through a Multistakeholder Approach, UNESCO."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"UN General Assembly (2018). Res 73\/173, UN Doc A\/RES\/73\/173, UN General Assembly."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"UN General Assembly (2019). Res 74\/173, UN Doc A\/RES\/74\/173, UN General Assembly."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"UN General Assembly (2020). Res 75\/176, UN Doc A\/RES\/75\/176, UN General Assembly."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"UN General Assembly (2021). Res 76\/227, UN Doc A\/RES\/76\/227, UN General Assembly."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"UN General Assembly (2023). Res 78\/213, UN Doc A\/RES\/78\/213, UN General Assembly."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"UN Human Rights Committee (2011). General Comment No. 34, Article 19: Freedoms of Opinion and Expression, UN Doc CCPR\/C\/GC\/34, UN Human Rights Committee."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"UN Human Rights Council (2012). Res 20\/8, UN Doc A\/HRC\/RES\/20\/8, UN Human Rights Committee."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"UN Human Rights Council (2017). Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of the Right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression, UN Doc A\/HRC\/35\/22, UN Human Rights Committee."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (2026). Update on the Human Rights Situation in Afghanistan: April\u2013June 2026, United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan and Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (2024). Media Freedom in Afghanistan, United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan and Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"United Nations Human Rights Council (2011). Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations \u2018Protect, Respect and Remedy\u2019 Framework, UN Doc A\/HRC\/17\/31, United Nations Human Rights Council."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Wojcicki, Susan (2026, July 15). Expanding Our Work Against Abuse of Our Platform, YouTube Official Blog, Available online: https:\/\/youtube.googleblog.com\/2017\/12\/expanding-our-work-against-abuse-of-our.html."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"X (2026, July 15). Expanding and Building #TwitterTransparency. Available online: https:\/\/blog.x.com\/en_us\/topics\/company\/2018\/twitter-transparency-report-12."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"X (2025). Digital Services Act Transparency Report, X."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-2466.2012.01636.x","article-title":"Social Media and the Activist Toolkit: User Agreements, Corporate Interests, and the Information Infrastructure of Modern Social Movements","volume":"62","author":"Youmans","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Communication"}],"container-title":["Laws"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-471X\/15\/5\/138\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T11:37:26Z","timestamp":1791977846000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-471X\/15\/5\/138"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["laws15050138"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/laws15050138","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-471X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-471X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]]}}}