{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T06:16:57Z","timestamp":1790835417313,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":304,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,11]],"date-time":"2020-06-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1591833600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"iNOVA4Health","award":["UID\/Multi\/04462\/2013"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/Multi\/04462\/2013"]}]},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia","award":["02\/SAICT\/2017\/029656"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["02\/SAICT\/2017\/029656"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Parkinson\u2019s Disease (PD) is currently the most rapid growing neurodegenerative disease and over the past generation, its global burden has more than doubled. The onset of PD can arise due to environmental, sporadic or genetic factors. Nevertheless, most PD cases have an unknown etiology. Chemicals, such as the anthropogenic pollutant 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) and amphetamine-type stimulants, have been associated with the onset of PD. Conversely, cannabinoids have been associated with the treatment of the symptoms\u2019. PD and medical cannabis is currently under the spotlight, and research to find its benefits on PD is on-going worldwide. However, the described clinical applications and safety of pharmacotherapy with cannabis products are yet to be fully supported by scientific evidence. Furthermore, the novel psychoactive substances are currently a popular alternative to classical drugs of abuse, representing an unknown health hazard for young adults who may develop PD later in their lifetime. This review addresses the neurotoxic and neuroprotective impact of illicit substance consumption in PD, presenting clinical evidence and molecular and cellular mechanisms of this association. This research area is utterly important for contemporary society since illicit drugs\u2019 legalization is under discussion which may have consequences both for the onset of PD and for the treatment of its symptoms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life10060086","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,12]],"date-time":"2020-06-12T05:02:24Z","timestamp":1591938144000},"page":"86","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Neuroprotection or Neurotoxicity of Illicit Drugs on Parkinson\u2019s Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Carla","family":"Ferreira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Pathology and Forensic Biochemistry Laboratory, Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o Interdisciplinar Egas Moniz, P-2825-084 Caparica, Portugal"},{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Ci\u00eancias Forenses e Psicol\u00f3gicas Egas Moniz, Campus Universit\u00e1rio\u2013Quinta da Granja, Monte de Caparica, P-2825-084 Caparica, Portugal"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine of Porto University, Al. Prof. Hern\u00e2ni Monteiro, P-4200\u2013319 Porto, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1452-2606","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Catarina","family":"Almeida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Pathology and Forensic Biochemistry Laboratory, Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o Interdisciplinar Egas Moniz, P-2825-084 Caparica, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sandra","family":"Tenreiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CEDOC\u2013Chronic Diseases Research Center, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias M\u00e9dicas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, P-1150-082 Lisboa, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5188-0453","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexandre","family":"Quintas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Pathology and Forensic Biochemistry Laboratory, Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o Interdisciplinar Egas Moniz, P-2825-084 Caparica, Portugal"},{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Ci\u00eancias Forenses e Psicol\u00f3gicas Egas Moniz, Campus Universit\u00e1rio\u2013Quinta da Granja, Monte de Caparica, P-2825-084 Caparica, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2016.01.007","article-title":"Anthropogenic pollutants may increase the incidence of neurodegenerative disease in an aging population","volume":"341\u2013343","author":"Bondy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-019-0244-7","article-title":"Ageing as a risk factor for neurodegenerative disease","volume":"15","author":"Hou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. 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