{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T03:59:45Z","timestamp":1788926385398,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":180,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,14]],"date-time":"2021-08-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1628899200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Space radiation is one of the principal environmental factors limiting the human tolerance for space travel, and therefore a primary risk in need of mitigation strategies to enable crewed exploration of the solar system. Methods: We summarize the current state of knowledge regarding potential means to reduce the biological effects of space radiation. New countermeasure strategies for exploration-class missions are proposed, based on recent advances in nutrition, pharmacologic, and immune science. Results: Radiation protection can be categorized into (1) exposure-limiting: shielding and mission duration; (2) countermeasures: radioprotectors, radiomodulators, radiomitigators, and immune-modulation, and; (3) treatment and supportive care for the effects of radiation. Vehicle and mission design can augment the overall exposure. Testing in terrestrial laboratories and earth-based exposure facilities, as well as on the International Space Station (ISS), has demonstrated that dietary and pharmacologic countermeasures can be safe and effective. Immune system modulators are less robustly tested but show promise. Therapies for radiation prodromal syndrome may include pharmacologic agents; and autologous marrow for acute radiation syndrome (ARS). Conclusions: Current radiation protection technology is not yet optimized, but nevertheless offers substantial protection to crews based on Lunar or Mars design reference missions. With additional research and human testing, the space radiation risk can be further mitigated to allow for long-duration exploration of the solar system.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life11080829","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,15]],"date-time":"2021-08-15T21:43:55Z","timestamp":1629063835000},"page":"829","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":69,"title":["Space Radiation Protection Countermeasures in Microgravity and Planetary Exploration"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4859-8772","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos A.","family":"Montesinos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Nugevity Health Sciences, Houston, TX 77450, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Radina","family":"Khalid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Octav","family":"Cristea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joel S.","family":"Greenberger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Pittsburg Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael W.","family":"Epperly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Pittsburg Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jennifer A.","family":"Lemon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Sciences Division, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, ON P3E 2C6, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Douglas R.","family":"Boreham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Sciences Division, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, ON P3E 2C6, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dmitri","family":"Popov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Medical Technologies and Systems Inc., Richmond Hill, ON L4B 1N1, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2645-6503","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gitika","family":"Gorthi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ignited Thinkers, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nandita","family":"Ramkumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Space Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3059-6832","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeffrey A.","family":"Jones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Space Medicine, Department of Urology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-018-9487-x","article-title":"The Earth\u2019s Magnetosphere: A Systems Science Overview and Assessment","volume":"39","author":"Borovsky","year":"2018","journal-title":"Surv. 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