{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T21:49:13Z","timestamp":1790804953451,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":89,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,19]],"date-time":"2022-01-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1642550400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>(1) Background: Persistent olfactory (POD) and gustatory (PGD) dysfunctions are one of the most frequent symptoms of long-Coronavirus Disease 2019 but their effect on the quality of life (QoL) of patients is still largely unexplored. (2) Methods: An online survey was administered to individuals who reported to have had SARS-CoV-2 infection at least 6 months prior with persisting COVID-19 symptoms (using the COVID symptom index), including ratings of POD and PGD, and their physical (PCS) and mental (MCS) components of quality of life were assessed using the standardized short form 12 questionnaire (SF-12). (3) Results: Responses from 431 unique individuals were included in the analyses. The most frequent persistent symptoms were: fatigue (185 cases, 42.9%), olfactory dysfunction (127 cases, 29.5%), gustatory dysfunction (96 cases, 22.3%) and muscle pain (83 cases, 19.3%). Respondents who reported persisting muscle pain, joint pain, fatigue, headache, gastrointestinal disturbances, and dyspnea had significantly worse PCS. Those experiencing persistent fatigue and dyspnea also showed significantly lower MCS. Respondents reporting POD or PGD showed significantly worse QoL, but only pertaining to the MCS. Multiple regressions predicted MCS based on olfactory and marginally on gustatory ratings, but not PCS. Age significantly affected the prediction of PCS but not MCS, and gender and temporal distance from the COVID-19 diagnosis had no effect. (4) Conclusions: POD and PGD are frequent symptoms of the long-COVID-19 syndrome and significantly reduce QoL, specifically in the mental health component. This evidence should stimulate the establishment of appropriate infrastructure to support individuals with persistent CD, while research on effective therapies scales up.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life12020141","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,19]],"date-time":"2022-01-19T08:20:57Z","timestamp":1642580457000},"page":"141","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":54,"title":["The Effects of Persistent Olfactory and Gustatory Dysfunctions on Quality of Life in Long-COVID-19 Patients"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7789-145X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luigi Angelo","family":"Vaira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Maxillofacial Surgery Operative Unit, Department of Medical, Surgical and Experimental Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy"},{"name":"Biomedical Science Department, PhD School of Biomedical Science, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1291-5422","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudia","family":"Gessa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Maxillofacial Surgery Operative Unit, Department of Medical, Surgical and Experimental Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1151-6830","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giovanna","family":"Deiana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Direction, Hygiene and Hospital Infection Control Operative Unit, Department of Medical, Surgical and Experimental Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3947-8733","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giovanni","family":"Salzano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Maxillofacial Surgery Department, University Hospital of Naples \u201cFederico II\u201d, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fabio","family":"Maglitto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Maxillofacial Surgery Department, University Hospital of Naples \u201cFederico II\u201d, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0845-0845","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jerome R.","family":"Lechien","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human and Experimental Oncology, Faculty of Medicine UMONS Research Institute for Health Sciences and Technology, University of Mons (UMons), 7000 Mons, Belgium"},{"name":"Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Foch Hospital, School of Medicine, UFR Simone Veil, Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines University, Paris Saclay University, 91190 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3655-1854","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sven","family":"Saussez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human and Experimental Oncology, Faculty of Medicine UMONS Research Institute for Health Sciences and Technology, University of Mons (UMons), 7000 Mons, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8624-0878","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pasquale","family":"Piombino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Maxillofacial Surgery Department, University Hospital of Naples \u201cFederico II\u201d, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Biglio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Maxillofacial Surgery Operative Unit, Department of Medical, Surgical and Experimental Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy"},{"name":"Maxillofacial Surgery Department, San Paolo Hospital, ASST Santi Paolo e Carlo, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Federico","family":"Biglioli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Maxillofacial Surgery Department, San Paolo Hospital, ASST Santi Paolo e Carlo, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paolo","family":"Boscolo-Rizzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, 34149 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Claire","family":"Hopkins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guy\u2019s and St Thomas NHS Foundation Trust, London SE1 7EH, UK"},{"name":"British Rhinological Society (President), London WC2A 3PE, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Valentina","family":"Parma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Monell Chemical Senses Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giacomo","family":"De Riu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Maxillofacial Surgery Operative Unit, Department of Medical, Surgical and Experimental Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy"},{"name":"Biomedical Science Department, PhD School of Biomedical Science, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1242","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.26587","article-title":"Long COVID and chronic COVID syndromes","volume":"93","author":"Halpin","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1080\/00016489.2021.1905178","article-title":"Persisting olfactory dysfunction improves in patients 6 months after COVID-19 disease","volume":"141","author":"Otte","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Oto-Laryngol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.13209","article-title":"Prevalence and 6-month recovery of olfactory dysfunction: A multicentre study of 1363 COVID-19 patients","volume":"290","author":"Lechien","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bjab038","DOI":"10.1093\/chemse\/bjab038","article-title":"Chemosensory dysfunctions induced by COVID-19 can persist up to 7 months: A study of over 700 healthcare workers","volume":"46","author":"Mei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Senses"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bjab006","DOI":"10.1093\/chemse\/bjab006","article-title":"Six-Month Psychophysical Evaluation of Olfactory Dysfunction in Patients with COVID-19","volume":"46","author":"Menegaldo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Senses"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4831","DOI":"10.1007\/s00405-021-06764-y","article-title":"Long-term follow-up of olfactory and gustatory dysfunction in COVID-19: 6 months case\u2013control study of health workers","volume":"278","author":"Vaduva","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Oto-Rhino-Laryngol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1017\/S002221512100116X","article-title":"Six-month smell and taste recovery rates in coronavirus disease 2019 patients: A prospective psychophysical study","volume":"135","author":"Petrocelli","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Laryngol. Otol."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"26","article-title":"Six month follow-up of self-reported loss of smell during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"59","author":"Hopkins","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rhinol. J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1002\/lary.29383","article-title":"COVID-19: Recovery from Chemosensory Dysfunction. A Multicentre study on Smell and Taste","volume":"131","author":"Niklassen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Laryngoscope"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vaira, L.A., Salzano, G., Le Bon, S.D., Maglio, A., Petrocelli, M., Steffens, Y., Ligas, E., Maglitto, F., Lechien, J.R., and Saussez, S. (2021). Prevalence of Persistent Olfactory Disorders in Patients with COVID-19: A Psychophysical Case-Control Study with 1-Year Follow-up. Otolaryngol. Neck Surg.","DOI":"10.1177\/01945998211061511"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"515","article-title":"Self-reported smell and taste recovery in coronavirus disease 2019 patients: A one-year prospective study","volume":"297","author":"Guida","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Oto-Rhino-Laryngol."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"517","article-title":"High prevalence of long-term olfactory, gustatory, and chemesthesis dysfunction in post-COVID-19 patients: A matched case-control study with one-year follow-up using a comprehensive psychophysical evaluation","volume":"59","author":"Hummel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rhinol. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lechien, J.R., Chiesa-Estomba, C.M., Vaira, L.A., Saussez, S., and Hans, S. (2020). COVID-19 Reinfection and Second Episodes of Olfactory and Gustatory Dysfunctions: Report of First Cases. Ear Nose Throat J.","DOI":"10.1177\/0145561320970105"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.13259","article-title":"Clinical features of patients who had two COVID-19 episodes: A European multicentre case series","volume":"290","author":"Lechien","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1002\/lary.29964","article-title":"New Onset of Smell and Taste Loss Are Common Findings Also in Patients with Symptomatic COVID -19 After Complete Vaccination","volume":"132","author":"Vaira","year":"2022","journal-title":"Laryngoscope"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1093\/chemse\/bju043","article-title":"The Impact of Olfactory Disorders in the United Kingdom","volume":"39","author":"Philpott","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Senses"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"559","article-title":"The importance of the olfactory system in human well-being, through nutrition and social behavior","volume":"383","author":"Boesveldt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Z. Zellforsch. Mikrosk. Anat."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1002\/alr.22592","article-title":"Self-reported olfactory loss associates with outpatient clinical course in COVID-19","volume":"10","author":"Yan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Forum Allergy Rhinol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"926","DOI":"10.1002\/alr.22608","article-title":"Self-reported olfactory loss in COVID-19: Is it really a favorable prognostic factor?","volume":"10","author":"Hopkins","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Forum Allergy Rhinol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1186\/s40463-020-00449-y","article-title":"Do olfactory and gustatory psycho-physiocal scores have prognostic value in COVID-19 patients? A prospective study of 106 patients","volume":"49","author":"Vaira","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2520","DOI":"10.1002\/lary.28964","article-title":"Mood, anxiety and olfactory dys-function in COVID-19: Evidence of central nervous system involvement?","volume":"130","author":"Speth","year":"2020","journal-title":"Laryngoscope"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jadr.2021.100156","article-title":"Association of COVID19-induced anosmia and ageusia with depression and suicidal ideation","volume":"5","author":"Lekkas","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord. Rep."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2013.12.026","article-title":"Olfaction as a marker for depression in humans","volume":"160","author":"Croy","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1002\/lary.21387","article-title":"Health-related and specific olfaction-related quality of life in patients with chronic functional anosmia or severe hyposmia","volume":"121","author":"Neuland","year":"2011","journal-title":"Laryngoscope"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-99627-9","article-title":"A study of depression, partnership and sexual satisfaction in patients with post-traumatic olfactory disorders","volume":"11","author":"Kamrava","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Watson, D.L.B., Campbell, M., Hopkins, C., Smith, B., Kelly, C., and Deary, V. (2021). Altered smell and taste: Anosmia, parosmia and the impact of long COVID-19. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0256998"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ohla, K., Tomer Green, M.G.V., Hannum, M.E., Bakke, A.J., Moein, S.T., and Tognetti, A. (2021). Increasing incidence of parosmia and phantosmia in patients recovering from COVID-19 smell loss. medRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.08.28.21262763"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022215121002279","article-title":"Impact of olfactory dysfunction on quality of life in coronavirus disease 2019 patients: A sys-tematic review","volume":"135","author":"Saniasiaya","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Laryngol. Otol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alshakhs, A., AlMomen, A., Alyaeesh, I., AlOmairin, A., Almutairi, A.A., Alammar, Z., AlMomen, H., and AlMomen, Z. (2021). The association of smell and taste dysfunction with COVID19, and their functional impacts. Indian J. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg., 1\u20136.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12070-020-02330-w"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103001","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjoto.2021.103001","article-title":"Quality of life and safety impact of COVID-19 associated smell and taste disturbances","volume":"42","author":"Coelho","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Otolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3307","DOI":"10.1007\/s00405-020-06575-7","article-title":"Impact of the smell loss on the quality of life and adopted coping strategies in COVID-19 patients","volume":"278","author":"Elkholi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Oto-Rhino-Laryngol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3348","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.14803","article-title":"Neurological outcome and quality of life 3 months after COVID-19: A prospective observational cohort study","volume":"28","author":"Rass","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.2165\/00019053-200017010-00002","article-title":"A Comparative Review of Generic Quality-of-Life Instruments","volume":"17","author":"Coons","year":"2000","journal-title":"PharmacoEconomics"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.2500\/ajra.2014.28.4102","article-title":"Prognosis of Postviral Olfactory Loss: Follow-up Study for Longer than One Year","volume":"28","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Rhinol. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.27309","article-title":"Post-acute COVID-19 syndrome (PCS) and health-related quality of life (HRQoL)\u2014A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"94","author":"Malik","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1097\/00005650-199603000-00003","article-title":"A 12-item short-form health survey: Construction of scales and preliminary tests of relia-bility and validity","volume":"34","author":"Kosinski","year":"1996","journal-title":"Med. Care"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1171","DOI":"10.1016\/S0895-4356(98)00109-7","article-title":"Cross-Validation of Item Selection and Scoring for the SF-12 Health Survey in Nine Countries: Results from the IQOLA Project. International Quality of Life Assessment","volume":"51","author":"Gandek","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Clin. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2021, December 08). COVID-19 e Qualit\u00e0 della Vita. Available online: https:\/\/it.surveymonkey.com\/r\/WSZ7TVS."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1080\/00016489.2021.1899282","article-title":"Validity and reliability of the COVID-19 symptom index, an instrument evaluating severity of general and otolaryngological symptoms","volume":"131","author":"Lechien","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Oto-Laryngol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1080\/135952201317080715","article-title":"Subjective health status assessment: Evaluation of the Italian version of the SF-12 health survey. Results from the MiOS project","volume":"6","author":"Kodraliu","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol. Biostat."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jval.2013.01.006","article-title":"The Mental Component of the Short-Form 12 Health Survey (SF-12) as a Measure of Depressive Disorders in the General Population: Results with Three Alternative Scoring Methods","volume":"16","author":"Vilagut","year":"2013","journal-title":"Value Health"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vaira, L.A., Lechien, J.R., Khalife, M., Petrocelli, M., Hans, S., Distinguin, L., Salzano, G., Cucurullo, M., Doneddu, P., and Salzano, F.A. (2021). Psychophysical Evaluation of the Olfactory Function: European Multicenter Study on 774 COVID-19 Patients. Pathogens, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10010062"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1093\/chemse\/bjaa041","article-title":"More Than Smell\u2014COVID-19 Is Associated with Severe Impairment of Smell, Taste, and Chemesthesis","volume":"45","author":"Parma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Senses"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1560","DOI":"10.1002\/hed.26269","article-title":"Olfactory and gustatory function impairment in COVID -19 patients: Italian objective multicenter-study","volume":"42","author":"Vaira","year":"2020","journal-title":"Head Neck"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1002\/lary.29286","article-title":"Prevalence of olfactory dysfunction in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): A meta-analysis of 27,492 patients","volume":"131","author":"Saniasiaya","year":"2021","journal-title":"Laryngoscope"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2851","DOI":"10.1007\/s00405-020-06548-w","article-title":"Epidemiological, otolaryngological, olfactory and gustatory outcomes according to the severity of COVID-19: A study of 2579 patients","volume":"278","author":"Lechien","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Oto-Rhino-Laryngol."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"3","article-title":"Epidemiology of smell and taste dysfunction","volume":"164","author":"Doty","year":"2019","journal-title":"Huntingt. Dis."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022215120001826","article-title":"Smell and taste recovery in coronavirus disease 2019 patients: A 60-day objective and prospective study","volume":"134","author":"Vaira","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Laryngol. Otol."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"865","article-title":"Objective sensory testing methods reveal a higher prevalence of olfactory loss in COVID-19\u2013positive patients compared to subjective methods: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"45","author":"Hannum","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Senses"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582802","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2020.582802","article-title":"Severity of Anosmia as an Early Symptom of COVID-19 Infection May Predict Lasting Loss of Smell","volume":"7","author":"Lechien","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022215120001358","article-title":"Remote psychophysical evaluation of olfactory and gustatory functions in early-stage coronavirus disease 2019 patients: The Bologna experience of 300 cases","volume":"134","author":"Petrocelli","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Laryngol. Otol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1570","DOI":"10.1002\/hed.26228","article-title":"Validation of a self-administered olfactory and gustatory test for the remotely evaluation of COVID -19 patients in home quarantine","volume":"42","author":"Vaira","year":"2020","journal-title":"Head Neck"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vaira, L.A., Lechien, J.R., Salzano, G., Salzano, F.A., Maglitto, F., Saussez, S., and De Riu, G. (2020). Gustatory Dysfunction: A Highly Specific and Smell-Independent Symptom of COVID-19. Indian J. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg., 1\u20133.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12070-020-02182-4"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109881","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2020.109881","article-title":"Is anosmia the price to pay in an immune-induced schorched-earth policy against COVID-19?","volume":"143","author":"Horoi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1002\/alr.22593","article-title":"Potential pathogenesis of ageusia and anosmia in COVID-19 pa-tients","volume":"10","author":"Vaira","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Forum Allergy Rhinol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liang, F., and Wang, D.Y. (2021). COVID-19 anosmia: High prevalence, plural neuropathogenic mechanisms, and scarce neurotropism of SARS-CoV-2?. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13112225"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022215120002455","article-title":"Olfactory epithelium histopathological findings in long-term coronavirus disease 2019 related anosmia","volume":"134","author":"Vaira","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Laryngol. Otol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabf8396","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.abf8396","article-title":"COVID-19\u2013related anosmia is associated with viral persistence and inflammation in human olfactory epithelium and brain infection in hamsters","volume":"13","author":"Lazarini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2526","DOI":"10.1002\/lary.28993","article-title":"Clinical and Radiological Evaluations of COVID -19 Patients with Anosmia: Preliminary Report","volume":"130","author":"Lechien","year":"2020","journal-title":"Laryngoscope"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vaira, L.A., Lechien, J.R., Salzano, G., Maglitto, F., Saussez, S., and De Riu, G. (2021). The role of nasal immunoglobulins in the recovery of olfactory function in COVID-19 patients. Am. J. Otolaryngol., 103301.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjoto.2021.103301"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1007\/s12105-020-01212-5","article-title":"ACE2 & TMPRSS2 expressions in head & neck tissues: A systemic review","volume":"15","author":"Lechien","year":"2021","journal-title":"Head Neck Pathol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1504","DOI":"10.1002\/alr.22815","article-title":"Making scents of loss of taste in COVID-19: Is self-reported loss of taste due to olfactory dysfunction? A prospective study using psychophysical testing","volume":"11","author":"Payen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. Forum Allergy Rhinol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2312","DOI":"10.1002\/lary.29777","article-title":"Correlations between olfactory psychophysical scores and SARS-CoV-2 viral load in COVID-19 patients","volume":"131","author":"Vaira","year":"2021","journal-title":"Laryngoscope"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022215121001651","article-title":"Systemic inflammatory markers and psychophysical olfacory scores in coronavirus disease 2019 patients: Is there any correlation?","volume":"135","author":"Vaira","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Laryngol. Otol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vaira, L.A., De Vito, A., Deiana, G., Pes, C., Giovanditto, F., Fiore, V., Lechien, J.R., Le Bon, S.-D., Saussez, S., and Madeddu, G. (2021). Correlations between IL-6 serum level and olfactory dysfunction severity in COVID-19 patients: A preliminary study. Eur. Arch. Oto-Rhino-Laryngol., 1\u20136.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-481598\/v1"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amadu, A.M., Vaira, L.A., Lechien, J.R., Scaglione, M., Saba, L., Lampus, M.L., Profili, S.G., Le Bon, S., Salzano, G., and Maglitto, F. (2021). Analysis of the correlations between the severity of lung involvement and olfactory psychophysical scores in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients. Int. Forum Allergy Rhinol., 1\u20136.","DOI":"10.1002\/alr.22869"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3702","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.14994","article-title":"Predictive factors of smell recovery in a clinical series of 288 coronavirus disease 2019 patients with olfactory dysfunction","volume":"28","author":"Saussez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103037","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjoto.2021.103037","article-title":"Chemosensory dysfunction in COVID-19: Is there really a correlation with viral load?","volume":"42","author":"Vaira","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Otolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.1002\/alr.22788","article-title":"Systemic corticosteroids in coro-navirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)-related smell dysfunction: An international view","volume":"11","author":"Huart","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. Forum Allergy Rhinol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1111\/coa.13636","article-title":"Management of new onset loss of sense of smell during the COVID-19 pandemic - BRS Consensus Guidelines","volume":"46","author":"Hopkins","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Otolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"21","article-title":"Efficacy of corticosteroid therapy in the treatment of long- lasting olfactory disorders in COVID-19 patients","volume":"59","author":"Vaira","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rhinol. J."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2512","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.8391","article-title":"Olfactory dysfunction in COVID-19: Diagnosis and management","volume":"323","author":"Whitcroft","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vaira, L.A., Lechien, J.R., Dore, S., Boccaletti, R., Saussez, S., and De Riu, G. (2021). Specific Therapy of Olfactory Disorders in COVID-19 Patients is Essential for the Prevention of Long-term Dysfunction. Indian J. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg., 1\u20132.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12070-021-02818-z"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saussez, S., Vaira, L.A., Chiesa-Estomba, C.M., Le Bon, S.D., Horoi, M., Deiana, G., Petrocelli, M., Boelpaep, P., Salzano, G., and Khalife, M. (2021). Short-Term Efficacy and Safety of Oral and Nasal Corticosteroids in COVID-19 Patients with Olfactory Dysfunction: A European Multicenter Study. Pathogens, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10060698"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103008","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjoto.2021.103008","article-title":"The interest of fluticasone nasal spray in COVID-19 related anosmia is still not demonstrated","volume":"42","author":"Lechien","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Otolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.160.4.785","article-title":"Unexplained Fatigue Syndromes in a Multinational Primary Care Sample: Specificity of Definition and Prevalence and Distinctiveness from Depression and Generalized Anxiety","volume":"160","author":"Skapinakis","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"222","article-title":"Parosmia is prevalent and persistent amongst those with COVID-19 olfactory dysfunction","volume":"59","author":"Cook","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rhinol. J."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parker, J.K., Kelly, C.E., and Gane, S.B. (2021). Molecular mechanism of parosmia. medRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.02.05.21251085"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1093\/chemse\/bjt072","article-title":"Olfactory Disorders and Quality of Life\u2014An Updated Review","volume":"39","author":"Croy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Senses"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.07231009","article-title":"A comparison of SF-36 and SF-12 composite scores and subsequent hospitalization and mortality risks in long-term dialysis patients","volume":"5","author":"Lacson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jval.2013.10.010","article-title":"EQ-5D Versus SF-12 in Coronary Patients: Are They Interchangeable?","volume":"17","author":"Clays","year":"2014","journal-title":"Value Health"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1891","DOI":"10.1007\/s00520-019-05007-5","article-title":"Health-related quality of life in Malaysian gastrointestinal cancer patients and their family caregivers\u2014a comparison study","volume":"28","author":"Abdullah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Support. Care Cancer"},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"32","article-title":"Individual importance of olfaction decreases with duration of smell loss","volume":"59","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rhinol. J."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1156","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022215113002545","article-title":"Olfaction, pheromones and life","volume":"127","author":"Hoskison","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Laryngol. Otol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5152","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-18963-y","article-title":"Smell and taste changes are early indicators of the COVID-19 pandemic and political decision effectiveness","volume":"11","author":"Pierron","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589409","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2020.589409","article-title":"Smell and Taste in Severe COVID-19: Self-Reported vs. Testing","volume":"7","author":"Mazzatenta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjoto.2021.103168","article-title":"The study of recovery rates of COVID-19 olfactory and gustatory dysfunc-tions requires psychophysical evaluations","volume":"42","author":"Lechien","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Otolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1252","DOI":"10.1002\/hed.26204","article-title":"Objective evaluation of anosmia and ageusia in COVID-19 patients: Single-center experience on 72 cases","volume":"42","author":"Vaira","year":"2020","journal-title":"Head Neck"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/0895-4356(90)90060-3","article-title":"Recall bias in epidemiologic studies","volume":"43","author":"Coughlin","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Clin. Epidemiol."}],"container-title":["Life"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1729\/12\/2\/141\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:03:45Z","timestamp":1760133825000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1729\/12\/2\/141"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,19]]},"references-count":89,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["life12020141"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/life12020141","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-1729"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-1729","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,19]]}}}