{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T06:04:06Z","timestamp":1792735446218,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]],"date-time":"2022-01-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1643241600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001659","name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ES 442\/1-1, RA 2187\/4-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ES 442\/1-1, RA 2187\/4-1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001659","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The wrist is by far the most differentiated section of the musculoskeletal system. The spectrum of wrist injuries ranges from minor injuries to complex traumas with simultaneous loss of functions, resulting in enormous economic costs. A proper understanding of the anatomy and biomechanics is essential for effective treatment, whether conservative or surgical; this applies to the wrist no less than to other parts of the human body. Here; information on the wrist anatomy; kinematics; and biomechanical behavior is presented, commencing with a brief explanation of the structure of its hard and soft tissues. Eight carpal bones in combination with two forearm bones (radius and ulna) construct the wrist joint. The motion of the wrist joint is initiated by the muscles of the forearm, and strong and short ligaments ensure the stability of the wrist. All of these components are essential to bringing functions to the wrist joint because these structures allow wrist mobility and sustainability. In addition, the kinematics of the wrist joint is presented and different biomechanical model approaches. The therapeutic (surgical) restoration of the balance between the load\u2013bearing capacity and the actual stress on a joint is the prerequisite for a lifelong and trouble-free function of a joint. Regarding the complex clinical problems, however, a valid biomechanical wrist joint model would be necessary as assistance, to improve the success of systematized therapies based on computer\u2013aided model\u2013based planning and intervention.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life12020188","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]],"date-time":"2022-01-27T22:00:56Z","timestamp":1643320856000},"page":"188","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":86,"title":["Anatomy, Biomechanics, and Loads of the Wrist Joint"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"J\u00f6rg","family":"Eschweiler","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthopaedics, Trauma and Reconstructive Surgery, RWTH Aachen University Hospital, Pauwelsstra\u00dfe 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianzhang","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthopaedics, Trauma and Reconstructive Surgery, RWTH Aachen University Hospital, Pauwelsstra\u00dfe 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Valentin","family":"Quack","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthopaedics, Trauma and Reconstructive Surgery, RWTH Aachen University Hospital, Pauwelsstra\u00dfe 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bj\u00f6rn","family":"Rath","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Klinikum Wels-Grieskirchen, 4600 Wels, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4383-3470","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alice","family":"Baroncini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery, Eifelklinik St. Brigida, Kammerbruchstra\u00dfe 8, 52152 Simmerath, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Frank","family":"Hildebrand","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthopaedics, Trauma and Reconstructive Surgery, RWTH Aachen University Hospital, Pauwelsstra\u00dfe 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7220-1221","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Filippo","family":"Migliorini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthopaedics, Trauma and Reconstructive Surgery, RWTH Aachen University Hospital, Pauwelsstra\u00dfe 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery, Eifelklinik St. Brigida, Kammerbruchstra\u00dfe 8, 52152 Simmerath, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1177\/0954411912445846","article-title":"Biomechanical analysis of rheumatoid arthritis of the wrist joint","volume":"226","author":"Bajuri","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part H"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/S0894-1130(96)80066-4","article-title":"The Anatomy and Basic Biomechanics of the Wrist joint","volume":"9","author":"Berger","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Hand Ther."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhsa.2006.05.002","article-title":"Kinematics of the midcarpal and radiocarpal joint in flexion and extension: An in vitro study","volume":"31","author":"Kaufmann","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhsa.2009.07.019","article-title":"Wrist anatomy and biomechanics","volume":"34","author":"Kijima","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2807","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-011-0361-y","article-title":"Development and validation of a computational model for investigation of wrist biomechanics","volume":"39","author":"Majors","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1177\/1753193415616939","article-title":"Functional kinematics of the wrist","volume":"41","author":"Rainbow","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1177\/0954411916635443","article-title":"A biomechanical model of the wrist joint for patient-specific model guided surgical therapy: Part 2","volume":"230","author":"Eschweiler","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part H"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1177\/0954411916632791","article-title":"Development of a biomechanical model of the wrist joint for patient-specific model guided surgical therapy planning: Part 1","volume":"230","author":"Eschweiler","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part H"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"998","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhsa.2008.04.027","article-title":"Scapholunate instability: Current concepts in diagnosis and management","volume":"33","author":"Kuo","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"123","article-title":"Carpal instability","volume":"50","author":"Gelberman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Instr. Course Lect."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Schmidt, H.-M., and Lanz, U. (2003). Chirurgische Anatomie der Hand, Thieme. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Sennwald, G. (2013). Das Handgelenk, Springer."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"An, K.-N., Berger, R.A., and Cooney, W.P. (1991). Biomechanics of the Wrist Joint, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4612-3208-7"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"S1","article-title":"Wrist osteoarthritis","volume":"101","author":"Laulan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Orthop. Traumatol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhsa.2016.07.105","article-title":"Carpal Kinematics and Kinetics","volume":"41","author":"Kamal","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ayhan, \u00c7., and Ayhan, E. (2020). Kinesiology of the Wrist and the Hand. Comparative Kinesiology of the Human Body, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-812162-7.00013-8"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01630897","article-title":"The capsular ligaments of the wrist: Morphology, morphometry and clinical applications","volume":"21","author":"Feipel","year":"1999","journal-title":"Surg. Radiol. Anat."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhsa.2004.08.012","article-title":"Carpal bone size and scaling in men versus in women","volume":"30","author":"Crisco","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"60","article-title":"Biomechanik des Carpus und des Handgelenkes","volume":"15","author":"Kapandji","year":"1986","journal-title":"Orthopade"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1002\/ar.1091860307","article-title":"The ligaments of the human wrist and their functional significance","volume":"186","author":"Mayfield","year":"1976","journal-title":"Anat. Rec."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sennwald, G. (1987). Das Handgelenk, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-06463-4"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/S0363-5023(76)80004-4","article-title":"The ligaments of the wrist","volume":"1","author":"Taleisnik","year":"1976","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Taleisnik, J. (1985). The Wrist, Churchill Livingstone."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1262","DOI":"10.2106\/00004623-198870080-00025","article-title":"Current concepts review. Carpal instability","volume":"70","author":"Taleisnik","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Bone Jt. Surg. Am."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hcl.2015.04.007","article-title":"Carpal Ligament Anatomy and Biomechanics","volume":"31","author":"Pulos","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hand Clin."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhsa.2012.10.035","article-title":"In Vivo Kinematics of the Scaphoid, Lunate, Capitate, and Third Metacarpal in Extreme Wrist Flexion and Extension","volume":"38","author":"Rainbow","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1097\/00003086-200102000-00006","article-title":"The anatomy of the ligaments of the wrist and distal radioulnar joints","volume":"383","author":"Berger","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schuind, F., An, K.N., Cooney, W.P., and Garcia-Elias, M. (1994). Advances in the Biomechanics of the Hand and Wrist, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4757-9107-5"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Towfigh, H., Hierner, R., Langer, M., and Friedel, R. (2011). Handchirurgie, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-11758-9"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"611","article-title":"In vivo three-dimensional kinematics of the midcarpal joint of the wrist","volume":"88","author":"Moritomo","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Bone Jt. Surg. Am."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2537","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2006.10.041","article-title":"A digital database of wrist bone anatomy and carpal kinematics","volume":"40","author":"Moore","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1007\/s004210000270","article-title":"Control of the wrist joint in humans","volume":"83","author":"Bawa","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2018.07.011","article-title":"The importance of abductor pollicis longus in wrist motions: A physiological wrist simulator study","volume":"77","author":"Shah","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1243\/PIME_PROC_1993_207_299_02","article-title":"A kinematic technique for describing wrist joint motion: Analysis of configuration space plots","volume":"207","author":"Moore","year":"1993","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part H"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Mansfield, P.J., and Neumann, D.A. (2018). Essentials of Kinesiology for the Physical Therapist Assistant e-Book, Elsevier Health Sciences."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1575","DOI":"10.1002\/jor.24717","article-title":"Proximal-distal shift of the center of rotation in a total wrist arthroplasty is more than twice of the healthy wrist","volume":"38","author":"Akhbari","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhsa.2005.05.016","article-title":"Kinematics of the midcarpal and radiocarpal joints in radioulnar deviation: An in vitro study","volume":"30","author":"Kaufmann","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9290(01)00117-8","article-title":"In vivo kinematic behavior of the radio-capitate joint during wrist flexion-extension and radio-ulnar deviation","volume":"34","author":"Neu","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.2106\/JBJS.I.01222","article-title":"The Mechanical Axes of the Wrist Are Oriented Obliquely to the Anatomical Axes","volume":"93","author":"Crisco","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Bone Jt. Surg. Am."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.2106\/00004623-197860040-00001","article-title":"Kinematics of the wrist. I. An experimental study of radial-ulnar deviation and flexion-extension","volume":"60","author":"Youm","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Bone Jt. Surg. Am. Vol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0363-5023(88)90189-X","article-title":"Relative motion of selected carpal bones: A kinematic analysis of the normal wrist","volume":"13","author":"Ruby","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0032-1333429","article-title":"Understanding Wrist Mechanics: A Long and Winding Road","volume":"2","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Wrist Surg."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berger, R.A., Crowninshield, R.D., and Flatt, A.E. (1982). The three-dimensional rotational behaviors of the carpal bones. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res., 303\u2013310.","DOI":"10.1097\/00003086-198207000-00047"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1097\/00003086-198601000-00005","article-title":"Kinematic considerations of the wrist","volume":"202","author":"Linscheid","year":"1986","journal-title":"Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhsa.2007.05.004","article-title":"Carpal kinematics during simulated active and passive motion of the wrist","volume":"32","author":"Patterson","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1053\/jhsu.2003.50009","article-title":"In vivo analysis of carpal kinematics and comparative review of the literature","volume":"28","author":"Moojen","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1003","DOI":"10.1053\/jhsu.2002.36519","article-title":"Scaphoid kinematics in vivo","volume":"27","author":"Moojen","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1016\/S0268-0033(02)00038-4","article-title":"Three-dimensional carpal kinematics in vivo","volume":"17","author":"Moojen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.5435\/00124635-201001000-00007","article-title":"The advantage of throwing the first stone: How understanding the evolutionary demands of Homo sapiens is helping us understand carpal motion","volume":"18","author":"Rohde","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Orthop. Surg."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0034-1368246","article-title":"Biomechanische Modellierung der Handwurzel","volume":"152","author":"Eschweiler","year":"2014","journal-title":"Z. Orthop\u00e4die Unf."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"113","article-title":"Luxaciones del carpo","volume":"6","author":"Navarro","year":"1921","journal-title":"An. Fac. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1016\/S0363-5023(81)80115-3","article-title":"Ulnar midcarpal instability-clinical and laboratory analysis","volume":"6","author":"Lichtman","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"52","article-title":"The mechanism of the wrist joint with special reference to fractures of the scaphoid","volume":"92","author":"Gilford","year":"1943","journal-title":"Guy\u2019s Hosp. Rep."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"166","article-title":"The mechanical anatomy of the carpus and its bearings on some surgical problems","volume":"75","author":"Macconaill","year":"1941","journal-title":"J. Anat."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"59","article-title":"Certain points in the anatomy and mechanism of the wrist-joint reviewed in the light of a series of R\u00f6ntgen ray photographs of the living hand","volume":"31","author":"Bryce","year":"1896","journal-title":"J. Anat. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1097\/01.blo.0000205896.83114.05","article-title":"The Classic: Injuries of the Wrist: A Radiological Study","volume":"445","author":"Destot","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhsa.2004.04.010","article-title":"Capitate-based kinematics of the midcarpal joint during wrist radioulnar deviation: An in vivo three-dimensional motion analysis","volume":"29","author":"Moritomo","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1054\/jhsb.2000.0388","article-title":"Theoretical stress analysis in wrist joint--neutral position and functional position","volume":"25","author":"Genda","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9290(94)00093-J","article-title":"Force and pressure transmission through the normal wrist. A theoretical two-dimensional study in the posteroanterior plane","volume":"28","author":"Schuind","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1002\/jor.1100060406","article-title":"Pressure distribution in the wrist joint","volume":"6","author":"Tencer","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/0363-5023(90)90049-W","article-title":"Effect on force transmission across the carpus in procedures used to treat Kienb\u00f6ck\u2019s disease","volume":"15","author":"Horii","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1016\/S0363-5023(05)80459-9","article-title":"Force transmission through the wrist joint in Kienb\u00f6ck\u2019s disease: A two-dimensional theoretical study","volume":"23","author":"Iwasaki","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Jakubowitz, E., Kaszap, B., Zhang, H., Mack, M., Kiggen, K., Jahnke, A., and Daecke, W. (2013). Kontaktkr\u00e4fte im Radiokarpalgelenk in Abh\u00e4ngigkeit zur Handgelenksstellung, Deutsche Gesellschaft f\u00fcr Biomechaik."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9290(01)00108-7","article-title":"Force transmission through the juvenile idiopathic arthritic wrist: A novel approach using a sliding rigid body spring model","volume":"35","author":"Manal","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1007\/s00113-004-0901-0","article-title":"Die Kraft\u00fcbertragung am Handgelenk nach Skaphoid-, Trapezium- und Trapezoideumfusion","volume":"108","author":"Meier","year":"2005","journal-title":"Unfallchirurg"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/0363-5023(92)90342-M","article-title":"Force transmission through the distal ulna: Effect of ulnar variance, lunate fossa angulation, and radial and palmar tilt of the distal radius","volume":"17","author":"Werner","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhsa.2008.12.004","article-title":"Comparison of the \u201cContact Biomechanics\u201d of the Intact and Proximal Row Carpectomy Wrist","volume":"34","author":"Tang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1861","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhsa.2012.05.040","article-title":"Scaphoid Excision and 4-Bone Arthrodesis Versus Proximal Row Carpectomy: A Comparison of Contact Biomechanics","volume":"37","author":"Tang","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"539","article-title":"The anatomy of the wrist joint","volume":"106","author":"Lewis","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Anat."}],"container-title":["Life"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1729\/12\/2\/188\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:09:05Z","timestamp":1760134145000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1729\/12\/2\/188"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]]},"references-count":69,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["life12020188"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/life12020188","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-1729"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-1729","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]]}}}