{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]],"date-time":"2026-09-07T22:46:04Z","timestamp":1788821164315,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":172,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,29]],"date-time":"2022-01-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1643414400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dystonia is a hyperkinetic movement disorder characterized by abnormal movement or posture caused by excessive muscle contraction. Because of its wide clinical spectrum, dystonia is often underdiagnosed or misdiagnosed. In clinical practice, dystonia could often present in association with other movement disorders. An accurate physical examination is essential to describe the correct phenomenology. To help clinicians reaching the proper diagnosis, several classifications of dystonia have been proposed. The current classification consists of axis I, clinical characteristics, and axis II, etiology. Through the application of this classification system, movement disorder specialists could attempt to correctly characterize dystonia and guide patients to the most effective treatment. The aim of this article is to describe the phenomenological spectrum of dystonia, the last approved dystonia classification, and new emerging knowledge.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life12020206","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,30]],"date-time":"2022-01-30T00:12:56Z","timestamp":1643501576000},"page":"206","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":40,"title":["Classification of Dystonia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8753-757X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lazzaro","family":"di Biase","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurology Unit, Campus Bio-Medico University Hospital Foundation, Via \u00c1lvaro del Portillo 200, 00128 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Unit of Neurology, Neurophysiology, Neurobiology, Department of Medicine, Universit\u00e0 Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via \u00c1lvaro del Portillo 21, 00128 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Brain Innovations Lab, Universit\u00e0 Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via \u00c1lvaro del Portillo 21, 00128 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alessandro","family":"Di Santo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurology Unit, Campus Bio-Medico University Hospital Foundation, Via \u00c1lvaro del Portillo 200, 00128 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Unit of Neurology, Neurophysiology, Neurobiology, Department of Medicine, Universit\u00e0 Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via \u00c1lvaro del Portillo 21, 00128 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Letizia","family":"Caminiti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurology Unit, Campus Bio-Medico University Hospital Foundation, Via \u00c1lvaro del Portillo 200, 00128 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Unit of Neurology, Neurophysiology, Neurobiology, Department of Medicine, Universit\u00e0 Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via \u00c1lvaro del Portillo 21, 00128 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pasquale Maria","family":"Pecoraro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurology Unit, Campus Bio-Medico University Hospital Foundation, Via \u00c1lvaro del Portillo 200, 00128 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Unit of Neurology, Neurophysiology, Neurobiology, Department of Medicine, Universit\u00e0 Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via \u00c1lvaro del Portillo 21, 00128 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9113-5925","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vincenzo","family":"Di Lazzaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurology Unit, Campus Bio-Medico University Hospital Foundation, Via \u00c1lvaro del Portillo 200, 00128 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Unit of Neurology, Neurophysiology, Neurobiology, Department of Medicine, Universit\u00e0 Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via \u00c1lvaro del Portillo 21, 00128 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.25475","article-title":"Phenomenology and classification of dystonia: A consensus update","volume":"28","author":"Albanese","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mov. 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