{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T01:41:15Z","timestamp":1782783675696,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,15]],"date-time":"2022-07-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1657843200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This review demonstrates current literature on pineal gland physiology, pathology, and animal model experiments to concisely explore future needs in research development with respect to pineal gland function and neuro-regenerative properties. The pineal gland plays an integral role in sleep and recovery by promoting physiologic circadian rhythms via production and release of melatonin. Yet, the current literature shows that the pineal gland has neuroprotective effects that modulate both peripheral and central nerve injuries through several direct and indirect mechanisms, such as angiogenesis and induction of growth factors and anti-inflammatory mediators. Animal models have also shown correlations between pineal gland function and metabolic homeostasis. Studies have shown that a functional pineal gland is essential in preventing and slowing the progression of certain diseases such as diabetes, osteoporosis, vertebral osteoarthritis, and neurodegenerative processes. Lastly, the array of cell culturing methods and animal models that can be used to further develop the study of pineal gland function and nervous system injury were reviewed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life12071057","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,17]],"date-time":"2022-07-17T22:57:06Z","timestamp":1658098626000},"page":"1057","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Pineal Gland from the Cell Culture to Animal Models: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9740-5992","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alekhya","family":"Peruri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Affairs and Research, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, 2265 Kraft Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexandra","family":"Morgan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Affairs and Research, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, 2265 Kraft Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alida","family":"D\u2019Souza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Affairs and Research, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, 2265 Kraft Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bridget","family":"Mellon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Affairs and Research, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, 2265 Kraft Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carey W.","family":"Hung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Affairs and Research, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, 2265 Kraft Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gabriella","family":"Kayal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Affairs and Research, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, 2265 Kraft Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Haejung","family":"Shin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Affairs and Research, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, 2265 Kraft Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kim","family":"Nguyen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Affairs and Research, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, 2265 Kraft Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2799-2620","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Malek","family":"Zahed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Affairs and Research, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, 2265 Kraft Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mason","family":"Yount","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Affairs and Research, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, 2265 Kraft Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Reilly","family":"Ellis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Affairs and Research, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, 2265 Kraft Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Taylor","family":"Wynne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Affairs and Research, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, 2265 Kraft Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Virginia","family":"Fritz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Affairs and Research, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, 2265 Kraft Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zachary","family":"Simmons","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Affairs and Research, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, 2265 Kraft Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kelly C. S.","family":"Roballo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Affairs and Research, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, 2265 Kraft Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, 1410 Prices Fork, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"226","article-title":"The morphological and functional characteristics of the pineal gland","volume":"92","author":"Gheban","year":"2019","journal-title":"Med. Pharm. Rep."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodriguez, M.P.I., Noctor, S.C., and Mu\u00f1oz, E.M. (2016). Cellular Basis of Pineal Gland Development: Emerging Role of Microglia as Phenotype Regulator. 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