{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,29]],"date-time":"2026-10-29T17:12:54Z","timestamp":1793293974758,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":87,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,15]],"date-time":"2022-11-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1668470400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Serum uric acid levels are altered by kidney disorders because the kidneys play a dominant role in uric acid excretion. Here, major kidney disorders which accompany hyperuricemia or hypouricemia, including their pathophysiology, are discussed. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) and hyperuricemia are frequently associated, but recent clinical trials have not supported the pathogenic roles of hyperuricemia in CKD incidence and progression. Diabetes mellitus (DM) is often associated with hyperuricemia, and hyperuricemia may be associated with an increased risk of diabetic kidney disease in patients with type 2 DM. Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors have a uricosuric effect and can relieve hyperuricemia in DM. Autosomal dominant tubulointerstitial kidney disease (ADTKD) is an important hereditary kidney disease, mainly caused by mutations of uromodulin (UMOD) or mucin-1 (MUC-1). Hyperuricemia and gout are the major clinical manifestations of ADTKD-UMOD and ADTKD-MUC1. Renal hypouricemia is caused by URAT1 or GLUT9 loss-of-function mutations and renders patients susceptible to exercise-induced acute kidney injury, probably because of excessive urinary uric acid excretion. Hypouricemia derived from renal uric acid wasting is a component of Fanconi syndrome, which can be hereditary or acquired. During treatment for human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B or cytomegalovirus, tenofovir, adefovir, and cidofovir may cause drug-induced renal Fanconi syndrome. In coronavirus disease 2019, hypouricemia due to proximal tubular injury is related to disease severity, including respiratory failure. Finally, serum uric acid and the fractional excretion of uric acid are indicative of plasma volume status; hyperuricemia caused by the enhanced uric acid reabsorption can be induced by volume depletion, and hypouricemia caused by an increased fractional excretion of uric acid is the characteristic finding in syndromes of inappropriate anti-diuresis, cerebral\/renal salt wasting, and thiazide-induced hyponatremia. Molecular mechanisms by which uric acid transport is dysregulated in volume or water balance disorders need to be investigated.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life12111891","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,16]],"date-time":"2022-11-16T02:27:34Z","timestamp":1668565654000},"page":"1891","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":34,"title":["Altered Serum Uric Acid Levels in Kidney Disorders"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8445-9892","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gheun-Ho","family":"Kim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Hanyang University College of Medicine, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jae-Bum","family":"Jun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, Hanyang University Hospital for Rheumatic Diseases, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2010","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keq204","article-title":"Uric acid and evolution","volume":"49","year":"2010","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S264","DOI":"10.3904\/kjim.2020.116","article-title":"Distribution of serum uric acid levels and prevalence of hyper- and hypouricemia in a Korean general population of 172,970","volume":"36","author":"Koo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Korean J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Halperin Kuhns, V.L., and Woodward, O.M. (2020). Sex differences in urate handling. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21124269"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1122","DOI":"10.1002\/art.40472","article-title":"U-shaped association between serum uric acid level and risk of mortality: A cohort study","volume":"70","author":"Cho","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yanai, H., Adachi, H., Hakoshima, M., and Katsuyama, H. (2021). Molecular biological and clinical understanding of the pathophysiology and treatments of hyperuricemia and its association with metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular diseases and chronic kidney disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22179221"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5049\/EBP.2021.19.1.1","article-title":"Urate transporters in the kidney: What clinicians need to know","volume":"19","author":"Chung","year":"2021","journal-title":"Electrolyte Blood Press."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tan, P.K., Ostertag, T.M., and Miner, J.N. (2016). Mechanism of high affinity inhibition of the human urate transporter URAT1. Sci. Rep., 6.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep34995"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1157","DOI":"10.1038\/ajh.2008.245","article-title":"Uricosuric action of losartan via the inhibition of urate transporter 1 (URAT 1) in hypertensive patients","volume":"21","author":"Hamada","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.2217\/pgs.15.52","article-title":"URAT1 gene polymorphisms influence uricosuric action of losartan in hypertensive patients with hyperuricemia","volume":"16","author":"Sun","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pharmacogenomics"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, L., Fan, Y., Wang, Y., Li, Z., Mao, D., and Zhuang, W. (2021). The impact of an URAT1 polymorphism on the losartan treatment of hypertension and hyperuricemia. J. Clin. Lab. Anal., 35.","DOI":"10.1002\/jcla.23949"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Otani, N., Ouchi, M., Misawa, K., Hisatome, I., and Anzai, N. (2022). Hypouricemia and urate transporters. Biomedicines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines10030652"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oh, T.R., Choi, H.S., Kim, C.S., Bae, E.H., Ma, S.K., Sung, S.A., Kim, Y.S., Oh, K.H., Ahn, C., and Kim, S.W. (2019). Hyperuricemia has increased the risk of progression of chronic kidney disease: Propensity score matching analysis from the KNOW-CKD study. Sci. Rep., 9.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-43241-3"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.1161\/hy1101.092839","article-title":"Elevated uric acid increases blood pressure in the rat by a novel crystal-independent mechanism","volume":"38","author":"Mazzali","year":"2001","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1661","DOI":"10.1097\/HJH.0b013e328303205d","article-title":"Oxonic acid-induced hyperuricemia elevates plasma aldosterone in experimental renal insufficiency","volume":"26","author":"Kurra","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2016.12.008","article-title":"Serum uric acid is not independently associated with plasma renin activity and plasma aldosterone in hypertensive adults","volume":"27","author":"Castiglia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nutr Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1465","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1523-1755.2004.00909.x","article-title":"Uric acid and the state of the intrarenal renin-angiotensin system in humans","volume":"66","author":"Perlstein","year":"2004","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gon\u00e7alves, D.L.N., Moreira, T.R., and da Silva, L.S. (2022). A systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between uric acid levels and chronic kidney disease. Sci. Rep., 12.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-10118-x"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kint.2020.10.022","article-title":"Hyperuricemia and progression of chronic kidney disease: To treat or not to treat?","volume":"99","author":"Floege","year":"2021","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2504","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1915833","article-title":"Effects of allopurinol on the progression of chronic kidney disease","volume":"382","author":"Badve","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2493","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1916624","article-title":"Serum urate lowering with allopurinol and kidney function in type 1 diabetes","volume":"382","author":"Doria","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jordan, D.M., Choi, H.K., Verbanck, M., Topless, R., Won, H.H., Nadkarni, G., Merriman, T.R., and Do, R. (2019). No causal effects of serum urate levels on the risk of chronic kidney disease: A Mendelian randomization study. PLoS Med., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002725"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2015.05.017","article-title":"Efficacy of febuxostat for slowing the GFR decline in patients with CKD and asymptomatic hyperuricemia: A 6-month, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"66","author":"Sircar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jjcc.2014.12.017","article-title":"Comparison of febuxostat and allopurinol for hyperuricemia in cardiac surgery patients with chronic kidney disease (NU-FLASH trial for CKD)","volume":"66","author":"Sezai","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2221","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gft029","article-title":"Uric acid and chronic kidney disease: Which is chasing which?","volume":"28","author":"Johnson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hassan, W., Shrestha, P., Sumida, K., Thomas, F., Sweeney, P.L., Potukuchi, P.K., Rhee, C.M., Streja, E., Kalantar-Zadeh, K., and Kovesdy, C.P. (2022). Association of uric acid-lowering therapy with incident chronic kidney disease. JAMA Netw. Open., 5.","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2022.15878"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3008","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1991.03470210076036","article-title":"Relationship between resistance to insulin-mediated glucose uptake, urinary uric acid clearance, and plasma uric acid concentration","volume":"266","author":"Facchini","year":"1991","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pcd.2022.03.003","article-title":"Serum uric acid levels and diabetic kidney disease in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A dose-response meta-analysis","volume":"16","author":"Ji","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prim. Care Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.13101","article-title":"Effects of sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors on serum uric acid level: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"20","author":"Zhao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1291","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.13670","article-title":"Uric acid and the cardio-renal effects of SGLT2 inhibitors","volume":"21","author":"Bailey","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1002\/bdd.1909","article-title":"SGLT2 inhibitor lowers serum uric acid through alteration of uric acid transport activity in renal tubule by increased glycosuria","volume":"35","author":"Chino","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biopharm. Drug Dispos."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F173","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.00462.2018","article-title":"SGLT2 inhibition and renal urate excretion: Role of luminal glucose, GLUT9, and URAT1","volume":"316","author":"Novikov","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Ren. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.11480821","article-title":"SGLT2 Inhibition and uric acid excretion in patients with type 2 diabetes and normal kidney function","volume":"17","author":"Suijk","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mabillard, H., Sayer, J.A., and Olinger, E. (2021). Clinical and genetic spectra of autosomal dominant tubulointerstitial kidney disease. Nephrol. Dial. Transpl., 98.","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfab268"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Devuyst, O., Olinger, E., Weber, S., Eckardt, K.U., Kmoch, S., Rampoldi, L., and Bleyer, A.J. (2019). Autosomal dominant tubulointerstitial kidney disease. Nat. Rev. Dis. Prim., 5.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-019-0109-9"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2014.125","article-title":"Autosomal dominant tubulointerstitial kidney disease: Of names and genes","volume":"86","author":"Bleyer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ackd.2016.11.012","article-title":"Autosomal dominant tubulointerstitial kidney disease","volume":"24","author":"Bleyer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Chronic Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2004.08.021","article-title":"Uromodulin storage diseases: Clinical aspects and mechanisms","volume":"44","author":"Scolari","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F1062","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.00233.2017","article-title":"Tamm-Horsfall protein\/uromodulin deficiency elicits tubular compensatory responses leading to hypertension and hyperuricemia","volume":"314","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Renal. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1385","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1523-1755.2002.kid581.x","article-title":"Autosomal-dominant medullary cystic kidney disease type 1: Clinical and molecular findings in six large Cypriot families","volume":"62","author":"Stavrou","year":"2002","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1065","DOI":"10.1007\/s00467-018-4188-8","article-title":"HNF1B nephropathy has a slow-progressive phenotype in childhood-with the exception of very early onset cases: Results of the German Multicenter HNF1B Childhood Registry","volume":"34","author":"Okorn","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2703","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfh348","article-title":"Renal cysts and diabetes syndrome resulting from mutations in hepatocyte nuclear factor-1beta","volume":"19","author":"Bingham","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2010.11.108","article-title":"HNF-1B specifically regulates the transcription of the \u03b3a-subunit of the Na+\/K+-ATPase","volume":"404","author":"Veenstra","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"679","article-title":"Drug-induced hyperuricaemia and gout","volume":"56","author":"Slim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semnephrol.2011.09.009","article-title":"Metabolic complications associated with use of diuretics","volume":"31","author":"Palmer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Semin. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.2005.049023","article-title":"Gout, diuretics and the kidney","volume":"65","author":"Pascual","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1302","DOI":"10.1080\/15257770.2011.616564","article-title":"Apical voltage-driven urate efflux transporter NPT4 in renal proximal tubule","volume":"30","author":"Jutabha","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nucleosides Nucleotides Nucleic Acids."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.3109\/10641963.2013.810228","article-title":"A comparative study on the effectiveness of losartan\/hydrochlorothiazide and telmisartan\/hydrochlorothiazide in patients with hypertension","volume":"36","author":"Hamada","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1007\/s10157-015-1186-z","article-title":"Functional analysis of novel allelic variants in URAT1 and GLUT9 causing renal hypouricemia type 1 and 2","volume":"20","author":"Mancikova","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ASN.0000105320.04395.D0","article-title":"Clinical and molecular analysis of patients with renal hypouricemia in Japan-influence of URAT1 gene on urinary urate excretion","volume":"15","author":"Ichida","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"886","DOI":"10.1007\/s00467-005-1863-3","article-title":"Mutational analysis of idiopathic renal hypouricemia in Korea","volume":"20","author":"Cheong","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pediatr. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shen, H., Feng, C., Jin, X., Mao, J., Fu, H., Gu, W., Liu, A., Shu, Q., and Du, L. (2014). Recurrent exercise-induced acute kidney injury by idiopathic renal hypouricemia with a novel mutation in the SLC2A9 gene and literature review. BMC Pediatr., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2431-14-73"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.5414\/CN110698","article-title":"Acute renal failure with severe loin pain and patchy renal vasoconstriction in a patient with march hemoglobinuria","volume":"97","author":"Kitahara","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1080\/15257770802138558","article-title":"Uric acid: The oxidant-antioxidant paradox","volume":"27","author":"Sautin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nucleosides Nucleotides Nucleic Acids."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1159\/000501877","article-title":"Exercise-induced acute kidney injury in a police officer with hereditary renal hypouricemia","volume":"9","author":"Shimizu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Case Rep. Nephrol. Dial."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hosoyamada, M. (2021). Hypothetical mechanism of exercise-induced acute kidney injury associated with renal hypouricemia. Biomedicines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines9121847"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2021050616","article-title":"Xanthine oxidoreductase inhibitors suppress the onset of exercise-induced AKI in high HPRT activity Urat1-Uox double knockout mice","volume":"33","author":"Hosoya","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1456","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfu377","article-title":"Renal Fanconi syndrome: Taking a proximal look at the nephron","volume":"30","author":"Klootwijk","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1159\/000188827","article-title":"A case study of adult-onset hypophosphatemic osteomalacia with idiopathic fanconi syndrome","volume":"72","author":"Dalmak","year":"1996","journal-title":"Nephron"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1093\/qjmed\/hct258","article-title":"Drug-induced renal Fanconi syndrome","volume":"107","author":"Hall","year":"2014","journal-title":"QJM"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1060","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2010.344","article-title":"Tenofovir-induced kidney disease: An acquired renal tubular mitochondriopathy","volume":"78","author":"Perazella","year":"2010","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.5049\/EBP.2018.16.2.19","article-title":"Adult idiopathic renal Fanconi syndrome: A case report","volume":"16","author":"Park","year":"2018","journal-title":"Electrolyte Blood Press."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1086\/316923","article-title":"Genetic and physical mapping of the locus for autosomal dominant renal Fanconi syndrome, on chromosome 15q15.3","volume":"68","author":"Broman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1102","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0905647","article-title":"A loss-of-function mutation in NaPi-IIa and renal Fanconi\u2019s syndrome","volume":"362","author":"Magen","year":"2010","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1307581","article-title":"Mistargeting of peroxisomal EHHADH and inherited renal Fanconi\u2019s syndrome","volume":"370","author":"Klootwijk","year":"2014","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1038\/s41581-020-00356-5","article-title":"COVID-19-associated acute kidney injury: Consensus report of the 25th Acute Disease Quality Initiative (ADQI) Workgroup","volume":"16","author":"Nadim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"i30","DOI":"10.1093\/ckj\/sfab003","article-title":"Pathology of COVID-19-associated acute kidney injury","volume":"14","author":"Sharma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Kidney J."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-0311-8","article-title":"The trinity of COVID-19: Immunity, inflammation and intervention","volume":"20","author":"Tay","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1755","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.04560421","article-title":"Evidence for and against direct kidney infection by SARS-CoV-2 in patients with COVID-19","volume":"16","author":"Hassler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kint.2020.07.019","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 causes a specific dysfunction of the kidney proximal tubule","volume":"98","author":"Werion","year":"2020","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dufour, I., Werion, A., Belkhir, L., Wisniewska, A., Perrot, M., De Greef, J., Schmit, G., Yombi, J.C., Wittebole, X., and Laterre, P.F. (2021). Serum uric acid, disease severity and outcomes in COVID-19. Crit. Care., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-021-03616-3"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3789","DOI":"10.1007\/s00467-021-05212-7","article-title":"Kidney involvement and histological findings in two pediatric COVID-19 patients","volume":"36","author":"Serafinelli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pediatr. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, B., Lu, C., Gu, H.Q., Li, Y., Zhang, G., Lio, J., Luo, X., Zhang, L., Hu, Y., and Lan, X. (2021). Serum uric acid concentrations and risk of adverse outcomes in patients with COVID-19. Front. Endocrinol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2021.633767"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2064","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMcp066837","article-title":"Clinical practice. The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis","volume":"356","author":"Ellison","year":"2007","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0954-6820.1971.tb04340.x","article-title":"Elevation of uric aicd clearance caused by inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion","volume":"189","author":"Nieuwenhuis","year":"1971","journal-title":"Acta Med. Scand."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM197909063011005","article-title":"Hypouricemia in the syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone","volume":"301","author":"Beck","year":"1979","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.V75805","article-title":"Evidence in hyponatremia related to inappropriate secretion of ADH that V1 receptor stimulation contributes to the increase in renal uric acid clearance","volume":"7","author":"Decaux","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1007\/s10157-016-1248-x","article-title":"Stimulation of V1a receptor increases renal uric acid clearance via urate transporters: Insight into pathogenesis of hypouricemia in SIADH","volume":"20","author":"Taniguchi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"57","article-title":"A salt-wasting syndrome associated with cerebral disease","volume":"63","author":"Peters","year":"1950","journal-title":"Trans. Assoc. Am. Physicians"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palmer, B., and Clegg, D. (2022). Cerebral salt wasting is a real cause of hyponatremia: Commentary. Kidney360, 3, Publish Ahead of Print.","DOI":"10.34067\/KID.0001452022"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1666","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.00070120","article-title":"The curious story of cerebral salt wasting: Fact or fiction?","volume":"15","author":"Verbalis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sterns, R., and Rondon-Berrios, H. (2022). Cerebral salt wasting is a real cause of hyponatremia: CON. Kidney360, 3, Publish Ahead of Print.","DOI":"10.34067\/KID.0001412022"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjms.2018.03.020","article-title":"High prevalence of renal salt wasting without cerebral disease as cause of hyponatremia in general medical wards","volume":"356","author":"Maesaka","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2009.263","article-title":"Is it cerebral or renal salt wasting?","volume":"76","author":"Maesaka","year":"2009","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1097\/MNH.0000000000000592","article-title":"Evolution and evolving resolution of controversy over existence and prevalence of cerebral\/renal salt wasting","volume":"29","author":"Maesaka","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.02740608","article-title":"More on renal salt wasting without cerebral disease: Response to saline infusion","volume":"4","author":"Bitew","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.5049\/EBP.2010.8.1.51","article-title":"Thiazide-induced hyponatremia","volume":"8","author":"Hwang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Electrolyte Blood Press."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, S., Jo, C.H., and Kim, G.H. (2021). The role of vasopressin V2 receptor in drug-Induced hyponatremia. Front. Physiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2021.797039"}],"container-title":["Life"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1729\/12\/11\/1891\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:18:24Z","timestamp":1760145504000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1729\/12\/11\/1891"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,15]]},"references-count":87,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11]]}},"alternative-id":["life12111891"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/life12111891","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-1729"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-1729","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,15]]}}}