{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T18:24:39Z","timestamp":1793039079845,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,9]],"date-time":"2023-05-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1683590400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research C","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["22K11386"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["22K11386"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Hallux valgus, a frequently seen foot deformity, requires early detection to prevent it from becoming more severe. It is a medical economic problem, so a means of quickly distinguishing it would be helpful. We designed and investigated the accuracy of an early version of a tool for screening hallux valgus using machine learning. The tool would ascertain whether patients had hallux valgus by analyzing pictures of their feet. In this study, 507 images of feet were used for machine learning. Image preprocessing was conducted using the comparatively simple pattern A (rescaling, angle adjustment, and trimming) and slightly more complicated pattern B (same, plus vertical flip, binary formatting, and edge emphasis). This study used the VGG16 convolutional neural network. Pattern B machine learning was more accurate than pattern A. In our early model, Pattern A achieved 0.62 for accuracy, 0.56 for precision, 0.94 for recall, and 0.71 for F1 score. As for Pattern B, the scores were 0.79, 0.77, 0.96, and 0.86, respectively. Machine learning was sufficiently accurate to distinguish foot images between feet with hallux valgus and normal feet. With further refinement, this tool could be used for the easy screening of hallux valgus.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life13051146","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,9]],"date-time":"2023-05-09T01:06:28Z","timestamp":1683594388000},"page":"1146","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Development of Hallux Valgus Classification Using Digital Foot Images with Machine Learning"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2186-1171","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mitsumasa","family":"Hida","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan"},{"name":"Graduate School of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7684-1936","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shinji","family":"Eto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Life Science and Systems Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Hibikino 2-4, Wakamatsu-ku, Kitakyushu 808-0135, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8349-7141","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chikamune","family":"Wada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Life Science and Systems Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Hibikino 2-4, Wakamatsu-ku, Kitakyushu 808-0135, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3321-8124","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kodai","family":"Kitagawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Systems Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Hachinohe College, 16-1 Uwanotai, Tamonoki, Hachinohe 039-1192, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Masakazu","family":"Imaoka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan"},{"name":"Graduate School of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2578-9613","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Misa","family":"Nakamura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan"},{"name":"Graduate School of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0276-6419","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ryota","family":"Imai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan"},{"name":"Graduate School of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Takanari","family":"Kubo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Takao","family":"Inoue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Keiko","family":"Sakai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7174-3835","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Junya","family":"Orui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan"},{"name":"Graduate School of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fumie","family":"Tazaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Masatoshi","family":"Takeda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan"},{"name":"Graduate School of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ayuna","family":"Hasegawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation, Takata-Kamitani Hospital, Kamiyamaguchi 4-26-14, Yamaguchi, Nishinomiya 651-1421, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kota","family":"Yamasaka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation, Takata-Kamitani Hospital, Kamiyamaguchi 4-26-14, Yamaguchi, Nishinomiya 651-1421, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hidetoshi","family":"Nakao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Therapy, Josai International University, 1 Gumyo, Togane 283-8555, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1097\/00003086-198106000-00008","article-title":"Hallux valgus\u2014Etiology, anatomy, treatment and surgical considerations","volume":"157","author":"Mann","year":"1981","journal-title":"Clin. 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