{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,18]],"date-time":"2026-10-18T15:21:18Z","timestamp":1792336878236,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,29]],"date-time":"2023-05-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1685318400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100018990","name":"Alfaisal University Inrernal Research Grant","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["IRG23312"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IRG23312"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100018990","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Abnormal levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) in human serum are the most sensitive indicator of hepatocellular damage. Because liver-related health problems are directly linked to elevated levels of ALT and AST, it is important to develop accurate and rapid methods to detect these enzymes for the early diagnosis of liver disease and prevention of long-term liver damage. Several analytical methods have been developed for the detection of ALT and AST. However, these methods are based on complex mechanisms and require bulky instruments and laboratories, making them unsuitable for point-of-care application or in-house testing. Lateral flow assay (LFA)-based biosensors, on the other hand, provide rapid, accurate, and reliable results, are easy to operate, and are affordable for low-income populations. However, due to the storage, stability, batch-to-batch variations, and error margins, antibody-based LFAs are considered unaffordable for field applications. In this hypothesis, we propose the selection of aptamers with high affinity and specificity for the liver biomarkers ALT and AST to build an efficient LFA device for point-of-care applications. Though the aptamer-based LFA would be semiquantitative for ALT and AST, it would be an inexpensive option for the early detection and diagnosis of liver disease. Aptamer-based LFA is anticipated to minimize the economic burden. It can also be used for routine liver function tests regardless of the economic situation in each country. By developing a low-cost testing platform, millions of patients suffering from liver disease can be saved.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life13061273","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,29]],"date-time":"2023-05-29T03:39:36Z","timestamp":1685331576000},"page":"1273","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":49,"title":["Aptasensors Are Conjectured as Promising ALT and AST Diagnostic Tools for the Early Diagnosis of Acute Liver Injury"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2288-4287","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raja","family":"Chinnappan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Tissue\/Organ Bioengineering & BioMEMS Lab, Organ Transplant Centre of Excellence, Transplant Research & Innovation Department, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh 11211, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tanveer Ahmad","family":"Mir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tissue\/Organ Bioengineering & BioMEMS Lab, Organ Transplant Centre of Excellence, Transplant Research & Innovation Department, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh 11211, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sulaiman","family":"Alsalameh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tariq","family":"Makhzoum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Salma","family":"Adeeb","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1372-9883","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khaled","family":"Al-Kattan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7536-910X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed","family":"Yaqinuddin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1504","DOI":"10.3390\/v2081504","article-title":"Hepatitis B and C Viruses and Hepatocellular Carcinoma","volume":"2","author":"Bartosch","year":"2010","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20160274","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2016.0274","article-title":"Viral Hepatitis and Liver Cancer","volume":"372","author":"Ringehan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1363","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.22109","article-title":"Public Policy Committee of the American Association for the Study of Liver Disease Serum Activity of Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT) as an Indicator of Health and Disease","volume":"47","author":"Kim","year":"2008","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"817","article-title":"The Past and Present of Serum Aminotransferases and the Future of Liver Injury Biomarkers","volume":"15","author":"McGill","year":"2016","journal-title":"EXCLI J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.3390\/s6070756","article-title":"Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST\/GOT) and Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT\/GPT) Detection Techniques","volume":"6","author":"Huang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11835","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.0c01335","article-title":"Microfluidic Paper-Based Analytical Devices: From Design to Applications","volume":"121","author":"Noviana","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152ra129","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.3003981","article-title":"A Paper-Based Multiplexed Transaminase Test for Low-Cost, Point-of-Care Liver Function Testing","volume":"4","author":"Pollock","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2019.02.066","article-title":"Recent Developments of Aptasensors Expedient for Point-of-Care (POC) Diagnostics","volume":"199","author":"Citartan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-2670(97)00167-0","article-title":"Antibodies for Immunosensors a Review","volume":"347","author":"Hock","year":"1997","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Odeh, F., Nsairat, H., Alshaer, W., Ismail, M.A., Esawi, E., Qaqish, B., Bawab, A.A., and Ismail, S.I. (2019). Aptamers Chemistry: Chemical Modifications and Conjugation Strategies. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25010003"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"820","DOI":"10.1126\/science.287.5454.820","article-title":"Adaptive Recognition by Nucleic Acid Aptamers","volume":"287","author":"Hermann","year":"2000","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10697","DOI":"10.1021\/es301686k","article-title":"Selection, Characterization, and Biosensing Application of High Affinity Congener-Specific Microcystin-Targeting Aptamers","volume":"46","author":"Ng","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2019.126133","article-title":"Aptameric Biosensor for the Sensitive Detection of Major Shrimp Allergen, Tropomyosin","volume":"314","author":"Chinnappan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13290","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-31327-3","article-title":"In Vitro Selection of Specific DNA Aptamers Against the Anti-Coagulant Dabigatran Etexilate","volume":"8","author":"Aljohani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2624","DOI":"10.1021\/acsabm.9b00294","article-title":"Electrochemical SELEX Technique for the Selection of DNA Aptamers against the Small Molecule 11-Deoxycortisol","volume":"2","author":"Eissa","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Bio Mater."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-017-2601-9","article-title":"Fluorometric Graphene Oxide-Based Detection of Salmonella Enteritis Using a Truncated DNA Aptamer","volume":"185","author":"Chinnappan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"7","article-title":"High-Specificity Nucleic Acid Aptamers for Detection of Ovarian Cancer Protein Biomarkers: Application in Diagnostics","volume":"5","author":"Siatka","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aptamers"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmt.2021.101153","article-title":"3D-Printed Transmembrane Glycoprotein Cancer Biomarker Aptasensor","volume":"24","author":"Crevillen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2020.04.022","article-title":"Electrochemical Aptasensors for Cancer Diagnosis in Biological Fluids\u2014A Review","volume":"1124","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2017.02.060","article-title":"Aptamer-Based Point-of-Care Diagnostic Platforms","volume":"246","author":"Dhiman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31103","DOI":"10.1038\/srep31103","article-title":"Fluorescence Based Aptasensors for the Determination of Hepatitis B Virus e Antigen","volume":"6","author":"Huang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5174","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.56471","article-title":"Development of Nucleic Acid Aptamer-Based Lateral Flow Assays: A Robust Platform for Cost-Effective Point-of-Care Diagnosis","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2579","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkl326","article-title":"RNA Aptamers Selected against DNA Polymerase \u03b2 Inhibit the Polymerase Activities of DNA Polymerases \u03b2 and \u03ba","volume":"34","author":"Gening","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"34","article-title":"Aptamers: Problems, Solutions and Prospects","volume":"5","author":"Lakhin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Nat. A\u043d\u0433\u043bo\u044f\u0437\u044b\u0447\u043da\u044f Bepc\u0438\u044f"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1515\/BC.2009.022","article-title":"Aptamers Selected against the Unglycosylated EGFRvIII Ectodomain and Delivered Intracellularly Reduce Membrane-Bound EGFRvIII and Induce Apoptosis","volume":"390","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5190","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.200800216","article-title":"Enrichment of Cell-targeting and Population-specific Aptamers by Fluorescence-activated Cell Sorting","volume":"47","author":"Raddatz","year":"2008","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1310","DOI":"10.1039\/c0an00962h","article-title":"Selection of DNA Aptamers Recognizing Small Cell Lung Cancer Using Living Cell-SELEX","volume":"136","author":"Kunii","year":"2011","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adachi, T., and Nakamura, Y. (2019). Aptamers: A Review of Their Chemical Properties and Modifications for Therapeutic Application. Molecules, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules24234229"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ni, S., Yao, H., Wang, L., Lu, J., Jiang, F., Lu, A., and Zhang, G. (2017). Chemical Modifications of Nucleic Acid Aptamers for Therapeutic Purposes. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms18081683"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"100199","article-title":"Aptasensors for Full Body Health Checkup","volume":"11","author":"Bhardwaj","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron. X"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2254","DOI":"10.1002\/elan.201900264","article-title":"Glycated Albumin Measurement Using an Electrochemical Aptasensor for Screening and Monitoring of Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"31","author":"Bunyarataphan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Electroanalysis"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8865","DOI":"10.1021\/ac502383e","article-title":"Detecting Transforming Growth Factor-\u03b2 Release from Liver Cells Using an Aptasensor Integrated with Microfluidics","volume":"86","author":"Matharu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, H., Wang, N., Zhang, L., Meng, H., and Li, Z. (2022). Aptamer-Based Sensors for Thrombin Detection Application. Chemosensors, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/chemosensors10070255"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, G., Gurung, A.S., and Qiu, W. (2019). Lateral Flow Aptasensor for Simultaneous Detection of Platelet-Derived Growth Factor-BB (PDGF-BB) and Thrombin. Molecules, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules24040756"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1286","DOI":"10.1016\/S1452-3981(23)07795-7","article-title":"Bioelectrochemical Detection of Alanine Aminotransferase for Molecular Diagnostic of the Liver Disease","volume":"9","author":"Paula","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Electrochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(03)00194-5","article-title":"Development of an Electrochemical Immunosensor for Alanine Aminotransferase","volume":"19","author":"Xuan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1007\/s11426-010-4148-z","article-title":"A Nano-Functionalized Real-Time Electrochemiluminescent Biosensor for Alanine Transaminase Assay","volume":"54","author":"Chu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sci. China Chem."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1271\/bbb.60043","article-title":"An Electrochemical Biosensor Array for Rapid Detection of Alanine Aminotransferase and Aspartate Aminotransferase","volume":"73","author":"Song","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.3390\/bios1030107","article-title":"Determination of Alanine Aminotransferase with an Electrochemical Nano Ir-C Biosensor for the Screening of Liver Diseases","volume":"1","author":"Hsueh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biosensors"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2023.124287","article-title":"A Dry Chemistry-Based Electrochemiluminescence Device for Point-of-Care Testing of Alanine Transaminase","volume":"256","author":"Lai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-021-05056-w","article-title":"Optical Assay Using B-Doped Core\u2013Shell Fe@BC Nanozyme for Determination of Alanine Aminotransferase","volume":"189","author":"Tian","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-011-4797-6","article-title":"Multienzyme-Modified Biosensing Surface for the Electrochemical Analysis of Aspartate Transaminase and Alanine Transaminase in Human Plasma","volume":"400","author":"Han","year":"2011","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.3390\/bios2020234","article-title":"Development of an Electrochemical-Based Aspartate Aminotransferase Nanoparticle Ir-C Biosensor for Screening of Liver Diseases","volume":"2","author":"Hsueh","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biosensors"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2013.03.026","article-title":"Label-Free Detection of Alanine Aminotransferase Using a Graphene Field-Effect Biosensor","volume":"182","author":"Her","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, J., Park, J.P., Dooley, K., Cropek, D.M., West, A.C., and Banta, S. (2011). Rapid Development of New Protein Biosensors Utilizing Peptides Obtained via Phage Display. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0024948"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2926","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2009.02.032","article-title":"A Stable and Selective Electrochemical Biosensor for the Liver Enzyme Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT)","volume":"24","author":"Jamal","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thuy, T.N.T., and Tseng, T.T.-C. (2016). A Micro-Platinum Wire Biosensor for Fast and Selective Detection of Alanine Aminotransferase. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16060767"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43793","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.447202","article-title":"Taper-in-Taper Fiber Structure-Based LSPR Sensor for Alanine Aminotransferase Detection","volume":"29","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Samy, M.A., Abdel-Tawab, M.A.-H., Abdel-Ghani, N.T., and El Nashar, R.M. (2023). Application of Molecularly Imprinted Microelectrode as a Promising Point-of-Care Biosensor for Alanine Aminotransferase Enzyme. Chemosensors, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/chemosensors11050262"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6985","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.1c21578","article-title":"Hydrogel-Involved Colorimetric Platforms Based on Layered Double Oxide Nanozymes for Point-of-Care Detection of Liver-Related Biomarkers","volume":"14","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2019.03.036","article-title":"An Aptamer-Based Hook-Effect-Recognizable Three-Line Lateral Flow Biosensor for Rapid Detection of Thrombin","volume":"133","author":"Gao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."}],"container-title":["Life"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1729\/13\/6\/1273\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:44:06Z","timestamp":1760125446000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1729\/13\/6\/1273"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,29]]},"references-count":51,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]}},"alternative-id":["life13061273"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/life13061273","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-1729"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-1729","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,29]]}}}