{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,17]],"date-time":"2026-10-17T11:39:22Z","timestamp":1792237162236,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":92,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,5]],"date-time":"2023-06-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1685923200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Insulin resistance is a critical pathophysiological process in the onset and advancement of type 2 diabetes mellitus. It is well-recognized that alterations in the metabolism of lipids and aberrant fat buildup effectively trigger the development of resistance to insulin. Adjusting one\u2019s eating habits and managing weight appropriately are crucial for treating, controlling, and reducing the risk of T2DM because obesity and a lack of physical exercise are the primary factors responsible for the worldwide rise in T2DM. Omega-3 fatty acid is one of the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) that include long-chain omega-3 fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, commonly found in fish oils. Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs; 3 and 6 PUFAs) are essential for human health because they serve as metabolic precursors of eicosanoids, a class of signaling molecules that are essential for controlling a body\u2019s inflammation. Since humans are unable to produce any of the omega-3 or omega-6 PUFAs, they both constitute imperative nutritional ingredients. Long-standing concerns about long-chain omega-3 fatty acids\u2019 impact on diabetes management have been supported by experimental investigations that found significant increases in fasting glucose following omega-3 fatty acid supplementation and foods rich in PUFA and omega-3 fatty acid. Cellular explanations to explain the connection between inflammation and IR include mitochondrial dysfunction, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and oxidative stress. Modifications in the lipid composition of mitochondrial membranes and\/or receptor-mediated signaling may be part of the mechanism behind the activation of mitochondrial fusion by fish oil\/omega-3 PUFA. The exact molecular processes by which omega-3 PUFAs control mitochondrial activity to defend against IR are still unknown.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life13061322","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,5]],"date-time":"2023-06-05T02:18:29Z","timestamp":1685931509000},"page":"1322","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":52,"title":["The Effect of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Insulin Resistance"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3591-1109","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susmita","family":"Sinha","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Khulna City Medical College and Hospital, 33 KDA Avenue, Hotel Royal Crossing, Khulna Sadar, Khulna 9100, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6124-7993","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mainul","family":"Haque","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Unit of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Defence Health, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (National Defence University of Malaysia), Kem Perdana Sungai Besi, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia"},{"name":"Department of Scientific Research Center (KSRC), Karnavati School of Dentistry, Karnavati University, Gandhinagar 382422, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8052-0580","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Halyna","family":"Lugova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, UCSI University Springhill (Seremban\/PD) Campus, No. 2, Avenue 3, Persiaran Springhill, Port Dickson 71010, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5117-7872","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Santosh","family":"Kumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Karnavati School of Dentistry, Karnavati University, A\/907, Adalaj-Uvarsad Rd, Gandhinagar 382422, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3920196","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/3920196","article-title":"The Intricate Relationship between Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM), Insulin Resistance (IR), and Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)","volume":"2020","author":"Tanase","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1177\/2047487319878371","article-title":"Diabetes as a cardiovascular risk factor: An overview of global trends of macro and micro vascular complications","volume":"26","author":"Ceriello","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galicia-Garcia, U., Benito-Vicente, A., Jebari, S., Larrea-Sebal, A., Siddiqi, H., Uribe, K.B., Ostolaza, H., and Mart\u00edn, C. (2020). Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21176275"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smhs.2019.08.006","article-title":"Physical activity, exercise, and chronic diseases: A brief review","volume":"1","author":"Anderson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sports Med. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2019.06.019","article-title":"Metabolic syndrome is an inflammatory disorder: A conspiracy between adipose tissue and phagocytes","volume":"496","author":"Reddy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"1216783","article-title":"Differential Role of Adipose Tissues in Obesity and Related Metabolic and Vascular Complications","volume":"2016","author":"Beneit","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5163","DOI":"10.1113\/JP281356","article-title":"Interpreting \u2018anti-inflammatory\u2019 cytokine responses to exercise: Focus on interleukin-10","volume":"599","author":"Islam","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kojta, I., Chaci\u0144ska, M., and B\u0142achnio-Zabielska, A. (2020). Obesity, Bioactive Lipids, and Adipose Tissue Inflammation in Insulin Resistance. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12051305"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"h3978","article-title":"Intake of saturated and trans unsaturated fatty acids and risk of all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes: Systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies","volume":"351","author":"Mente","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1002\/JLB.4MR0119-035R","article-title":"Fat, fight, and Beyond: The multiple roles of lipid droplets in Infections and Inflammation","volume":"106","author":"Teixeira","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.2147\/DMSO.S286888","article-title":"Metabolic and Energy Imbalance in Dysglycemia-Based Chronic Disease","volume":"14","author":"Kalra","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Syndr. Obes. Targets Ther."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.4239\/wjd.v7.i19.483","article-title":"Nutrition, insulin resistance and dysfunctional adipose tissue determine the different components of metabolic syndrome","volume":"7","author":"Paniagua","year":"2016","journal-title":"World J. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2018.04.049","article-title":"Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids: Dietary sources, metabolism, and significance\u2014A review","volume":"203","author":"Saini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1007\/s13105-013-0265-4","article-title":"Role of omega-3 fatty acids in obesity, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular diseases: A review of the evidence","volume":"69","author":"Costa","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Drenjan\u010devi\u0107, I., and Pitha, J. (2022). Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids\u2014Vascular and Cardiac Effects on the Cellular and Molecular Level (Narrative Review). Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23042104"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.2337\/dc20-2328","article-title":"Association of Oily and Nonoily Fish Consumption and Fish Oil Supplements With Incident Type 2 Diabetes: A Large Population-Based Prospective Study","volume":"44","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Briggs, M.A., Petersen, K.S., and Kris-Etherton, P.M. (2017). Saturated Fatty Acids and Cardiovascular Disease: Replacements for Saturated Fat to Reduce Cardiovascular Risk. Healthcare, 5.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201705.0135.v1"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9018","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-65528-6","article-title":"The Effect of Corrected Inflammation, Oxidative Stress and Endothelial Dysfunction on Fmd Levels in Patients with Selected Chronic Diseases: A Quasi-Experimental Study","volume":"10","author":"Yilmaz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S58","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114514003742","article-title":"Fish, a Mediterranean source of n-3 PUFA: Benefits do not justify limiting consumption","volume":"113","author":"Gil","year":"2015","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Djuricic, I., and Calder, P.C. (2021). Beneficial Outcomes of Omega-6 and Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids on Human Health: An Update for 2021. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13072421"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burgos-Mor\u00f3n, E., Abad-Jim\u00e9nez, Z., de Mara\u00f1\u00f3n, A.M., Iannantuoni, F., Escribano-L\u00f3pez, I., L\u00f3pez-Dom\u00e8nech, S., Salom, C., Jover, A., Mora, V., and Roldan, I. (2019). Relationship between Oxidative Stress, ER Stress, and Inflammation in Type 2 Diabetes: The Battle Continues. J. Clin. Med., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm8091385"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1038\/s41569-021-00511-w","article-title":"Endoplasmic reticulum stress and unfolded protein response in cardiovascular diseases","volume":"18","author":"Ren","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.3746\/pnf.2017.22.4.251","article-title":"Anti-Inflammatory and Anti-Obesity Properties of Food Bioactive Components: Effects on Adipose Tissue","volume":"22","author":"Jayarathne","year":"2017","journal-title":"Prev. Nutr. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1798","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2022.06.034","article-title":"Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid biomarkers and risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and mortality","volume":"41","author":"Jiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Remize, M., Brunel, Y., Silva, J.L., Berthon, J.-Y., and Filaire, E. (2021). Microalgae n-3 PUFAs Production and Use in Food and Feed Industries. Mar. Drugs, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/md19020113"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Takic, M., Pokimica, B., Petrovic-Oggiano, G., and Popovic, T. (2022). Effects of Dietary \u03b1-Linolenic Acid Treatment and the Efficiency of Its Conversion to Eicosapentaenoic and Docosahexaenoic Acids in Obesity and Related Diseases. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27144471"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mito.2022.11.003","article-title":"Therapeutics for mitochondrial dysfunction-linked diseases in Down syndrome","volume":"68","author":"Ganguly","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mitochondrion"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sinha, S., and Haque, M. (2022). Insulin Resistance Is Cheerfully Hitched with Hypertension. Life, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/life12040564"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e142241","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI142241","article-title":"Insulin signaling in health and disease","volume":"131","author":"Saltiel","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1002\/bab.2104","article-title":"The interplay of ROS and the PI3K\/Akt pathway in autophagy regulation","volume":"69","author":"Kma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Appl. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"e28944","article-title":"Insulin Resistance and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: An Ultimatum to Renal Physiology","volume":"14","author":"Sinha","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2020.00378","article-title":"Reducing Glucokinase Activity to Enhance Insulin Secretion: A Counterintuitive Theory to Preserve Cellular Function and Glucose Homeostasis","volume":"11","author":"Whitticar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1273","DOI":"10.1007\/s00424-020-02417-x","article-title":"Glucose transporters in adipose tissue, liver, and skeletal muscle in metabolic health and disease","volume":"472","author":"Chadt","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pfl\u00fcgers Arch. Eur. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.33549\/physiolres.932993","article-title":"Excess of Free Fatty Acids as a Cause of Metabolic Dysfunction in Skeletal Muscle","volume":"65","author":"Tumova","year":"2016","journal-title":"Physiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lepretti, M., Martucciello, S., Burgos Aceves, M.A., Putti, R., and Lionetti, L. (2018). Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Insulin Resistance: Focus on the Regulation of Mitochondria and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10030350"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1066","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2016.11.010","article-title":"Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in metabolic disorders\u2014A step towards mitochondria based therapeutic strategies","volume":"1863","author":"Bhatti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA)-Mol. Basis Dis."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1038\/s41580-018-0044-8","article-title":"Metabolites as regulators of insulin sensitivity and metabolism","volume":"19","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"1469","article-title":"Role of ABCA1 on membrane cholesterol content, insulin-dependent Akt phosphorylation and glucose uptake in adult skeletal muscle fibers from mice","volume":"1863","author":"Campos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Mol. Cell Biol. Lipids"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R15","DOI":"10.1530\/JOE-16-0598","article-title":"Skeletal muscle insulin resistance: Role of mitochondria and other ROS sources","volume":"233","author":"Iossa","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Je\u017eek, P., Holendov\u00e1, B., Jab\u016frek, M., Tauber, J., Dlaskov\u00e1, A., and Plecit\u00e1-Hlavat\u00e1, L. (2021). The Pancreatic \u03b2-Cell: The Perfect Redox System. Antioxidants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox10020197"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R1177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2017.09.015","article-title":"The Origin and Diversification of Mitochondria","volume":"27","author":"Roger","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100487","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cophys.2022.100487","article-title":"Energy transfer between the mitochondrial network and lipid droplets in insulin-resistant skeletal muscle","volume":"24","author":"Parry","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5730","DOI":"10.2174\/0929867326666190712150638","article-title":"Targeting Mitochondria through the Use of Mitocans as Emerging Anticancer Agents","volume":"27","author":"Macasoi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabo7956","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abo7956","article-title":"AMPK-dependent phosphorylation of MTFR1L regulates mitochondrial morphology","volume":"8","author":"Tilokani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coph.2021.11.010","article-title":"The molecular link between oxidative stress, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes: A target for new therapies against cardiovascular diseases","volume":"62","author":"Andreadi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.5534\/wjmh.210146","article-title":"The Role of Mitochondrial Dynamic Dysfunction in Age-Associated Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"40","author":"Vezza","year":"2022","journal-title":"World J. Mens Health"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-020-05335-w","article-title":"Human skeletal muscle mitochondrial dynamics in relation to oxidative capacity and insulin sensitivity","volume":"64","author":"Houzelle","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.2337\/db12-1203","article-title":"Linking the metabolic state and mitochondrial DNA in chronic disease, health, and aging","volume":"62","author":"Picard","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2017.11.019","article-title":"Mitochondrial dysfunction in obesity","volume":"192","author":"Costa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreno-Fern\u00e1ndez, S., Garc\u00e9s-Rim\u00f3n, M., Vera, G., Astier, J., Landrier, J.F., and Miguel, M. (2018). High Fat\/High Glucose Diet Induces Metabolic Syndrome in an Experimental Rat Model. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10101502"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trsl.2018.07.011","article-title":"Mitochondrial dynamics in skeletal muscle insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes","volume":"202","author":"Fealy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40855","DOI":"10.1038\/srep40855","article-title":"PLIN2 is a Key Regulator of the Unfolded Protein Response and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Resolution in Pancreatic \u03b2 Cells","volume":"7","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kimura, T., Kagami, K., Sato, A., Osaki, A., Ito, K., Horii, S., Toya, T., Masaki, N., Yasuda, R., and Nagatomo, Y. (2022). Sarco\/Endoplasmic Reticulum Ca2+ ATPase 2 Activator Ameliorates Endothelial Dysfunction; Insulin Resistance in Diabetic Mice. Cells, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11091488"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2015.07.011","article-title":"ER-to-mitochondria miscommunication and metabolic diseases","volume":"1852","author":"Mera","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s12079-022-00680-4","article-title":"The functions of Ca2+\/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) in diabetes progression","volume":"17","author":"Benchoula","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Cell Commun. Signal."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e291","DOI":"10.1038\/emm.2016.157","article-title":"Oxidative stress and calcium dysregulation by palmitate in type 2 diabetes","volume":"49","author":"Ly","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1024\/0300-9831\/a000143","article-title":"Omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acids intake and dietary sources in a representative sample of Spanish adults","volume":"83","author":"Aparicio","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3421","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2015.1126549","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory effects of omega 3 and omega 6 polyunsaturated fatty acids in cardiovascular disease and metabolic syndrome","volume":"57","author":"Marin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gammone, M.A., Riccioni, G., Parrinello, G., and D\u2019orazio, N. (2018). Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids: Benefits and Endpoints in Sport. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11010046"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2020.108503","article-title":"Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids prevent obesity by improving tricarboxylic acid cycle homeostasis","volume":"88","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2018.03.035","article-title":"AMPK activation by pterostilbene contributes to suppression of hepatic gluconeogenic gene expression and glucose production in H4IIE cells","volume":"498","author":"Ren","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2977","DOI":"10.1113\/JP276747","article-title":"Cardiomyopathy in obesity, insulin resistance and diabetes","volume":"598","author":"Nakamura","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2000249","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.202000249","article-title":"Modeling Diet-Induced Metabolic Syndrome in Rodents","volume":"64","author":"Leonardi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1481","DOI":"10.1039\/C6FO01841F","article-title":"Fish oil supplementation inhibits endoplasmic reticulum stress and improves insulin resistance: Involvement of AMP-activated protein kinase","volume":"8","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"24","article-title":"Omega-3 fatty acids and adipose tissue function in obesity and metabolic syndrome","volume":"121 Pt A","author":"Laiglesia","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kelley, N., Jeltema, D., Duan, Y., and He, Y. (2019). The NLRP3 Inflammasome: An Overview of Mechanisms of Activation and Regulation. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20133328"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2014.5994","article-title":"Redox Regulation of NLRP3 Inflammasomes: ROS as Trigger or Effector?","volume":"22","author":"Abais","year":"2015","journal-title":"Antioxidants Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tem.2020.03.004","article-title":"Mitochondria and T2D: Role of Autophagy, ER Stress, and Inflammasome","volume":"31","author":"Rocha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1318","DOI":"10.1002\/JPER.19-0613","article-title":"Omega-3 PUFA and aspirin as adjuncts to periodontal debridement in patients with periodontitis and type 2 diabetes mellitus: Randomized clinical trial","volume":"91","author":"Andere","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchf.2021.12.006","article-title":"Diabetes Mellitus, Race, and Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Incidence of Heart Failure Hospitalization","volume":"10","author":"Cook","year":"2022","journal-title":"JACC Hear. Fail."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ascend Study Collaborative Group, Bowman, L., Mafham, M., Wallendszus, K., Stevens, W., Buck, G., Barton, J., Murphy, K., Aung, T., and Haynes, R. (2018). Effects of n-3 fatty acid supplements in diabetes mellitus. N. Engl. J. Med., 379, 1540\u20131550.","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1804989"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1943","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.6393","article-title":"A comparison between the effects of flaxseed oil and fish oil supplementation on cardiovascular health in type 2 diabetic patients with coronary heart disease: A randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"33","author":"Raygan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jval.2020.05.018","article-title":"Economic Evaluation of Factorial Trials: Cost-Utility Analysis of the Atorvastatin in Factorial with Omega EE90 Risk Reduction in Diabetes 2 \u00d7 2 \u00d7 2 Factorial Trial of Atorvastatin, Omega-3 Fish Oil, and Action Planning","volume":"23","author":"Dakin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Value Heal."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqy120","article-title":"Effect of combined use of a low-carbohydrate, high-protein diet with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on glycemic control in newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes: A randomized, double-blind, parallel-controlled trial","volume":"108","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114519003416","article-title":"The effects of n-3 fatty acids from flaxseed oil on genetic and metabolic profiles in patients with gestational diabetes mellitus: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"123","author":"Jamilian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1794","DOI":"10.2337\/db21-0136","article-title":"Investigating the Neuroprotective Effect of Oral Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation in Type 1 Diabetes (nPROOFS1): A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trial","volume":"70","author":"Kamel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1186\/s12933-020-01094-5","article-title":"Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation versus placebo on vascular health, glycaemic control, and metabolic parameters in people with type 1 diabetes: A randomized controlled preliminary trial","volume":"19","author":"Dunseath","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2019.10.012","article-title":"Effects of DHA-enriched fish oil on gene expression levels of p53 and NF-\u03baB and PPAR-\u03b3 activity in PBMCs of patients with T2DM: A randomized, double-blind, clinical trial","volume":"30","author":"Naeini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s12944-022-01630-0","article-title":"Effects of marine-derived and plant-derived omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on erythrocyte fatty acid composition in type 2 diabetic patients","volume":"21","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lipids Heal. Dis."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burhop, M., Schuchardt, J.P., Nebl, J., M\u00fcller, M., Lichtinghagen, R., and Hahn, A. (2022). Marine Oil from C. finmarchicus Enhances Glucose Homeostasis and Liver Insulin Resistance in Obese Prediabetic Individuals. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14020396"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2020.102154","article-title":"DHA-enriched fish oil reduces insulin resistance in overweight and obese adults","volume":"159","author":"Abbott","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2018.04.012","article-title":"Replication of a Gene-Diet Interaction at CD36, NOS3 and PPARG in Response to Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplements on Blood Lipids: A Double-Blind Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"31","author":"Zheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ebiomedicine"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13679","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-32032-x","article-title":"Curcumin alleviates postprandial glycaemic response in healthy subjects: A cross-over, randomized controlled study","volume":"8","author":"Thota","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1035","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1816832","article-title":"A Randomized Trial of Prenatal n\u22123 Fatty Acid Supplementation and Preterm Delivery","volume":"381","author":"Makrides","year":"2019","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"570","article-title":"[Effects of \u03c9-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids from different sources on glucolipid metabolism in type 2 diabetic patients with dyslipidemia]","volume":"53","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Zhonghua yu fang yi xue za zhi Chin. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114519001132","article-title":"Long-term vitamin D and high-dose n-3 fatty acids\u2019 supplementation improve markers of cardiometabolic risk in type 2 diabetic patients with CHD","volume":"122","author":"Talari","year":"2019","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wasserfurth, P., Nebl, J., Schuchardt, J.P., M\u00fcller, M., Bo\u00dflau, T.K., Kr\u00fcger, K., and Hahn, A. (2020). Effects of Exercise Combined with a Healthy Diet or Calanus finmarchicus Oil Supplementation on Body Composition and Metabolic Markers\u2014A Pilot Study. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12072139"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2471","DOI":"10.1039\/C9FO00048H","article-title":"Changes of urine metabolites in response to n-3 fatty acid supplements and their correlation with metabolic risk factors in patients with type 2 diabetes","volume":"10","author":"Ruan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1097\/MCO.0000000000000845","article-title":"Omega-3 fatty acids and metabolic partitioning of fatty acids within the liver in the context of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"25","author":"Calder","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plipres.2009.02.003","article-title":"Basal very low-density lipoprotein metabolism in response to exercise: Mechanisms of hypotriacylglycerolemia","volume":"48","author":"Magkos","year":"2009","journal-title":"Prog. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2017.9","article-title":"Docosahexaenoic acid enrichment in NAFLD is associated with improvements in hepatic metabolism and hepatic insulin sensitivity: A pilot study","volume":"71","author":"Hodson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tobin, D., Brevik-Andersen, M., Qin, Y., Innes, J.K., and Calder, P.C. (2018). Evaluation of a High Concentrate Omega-3 for Correcting the Omega-3 Fatty Acid Nutritional Deficiency in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (CONDIN). Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201807.0240.v1"}],"container-title":["Life"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1729\/13\/6\/1322\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:48:16Z","timestamp":1760125696000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1729\/13\/6\/1322"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,5]]},"references-count":92,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]}},"alternative-id":["life13061322"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/life13061322","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-1729"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-1729","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,5]]}}}