{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T18:14:51Z","timestamp":1791224091699,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":127,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,29]],"date-time":"2023-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1695945600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The burden of cardiovascular diseases and the critical role of acute coronary syndrome (ACS) in their progression underscore the need for effective diagnostic and prognostic tools. Biomarkers have emerged as crucial instruments for ACS diagnosis, risk stratification, and prognosis assessment. Among these, high-sensitivity troponin (hs-cTn) has revolutionized ACS diagnosis due to its superior sensitivity and negative predictive value. However, challenges regarding specificity, standardization, and interpretation persist. Beyond troponins, various biomarkers reflecting myocardial injury, neurohormonal activation, inflammation, thrombosis, and other pathways are being explored to refine ACS management. This review article comprehensively explores the landscape of clinically used biomarkers intricately involved in the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and prognosis of ACS (i.e., troponins, creatine kinase MB (CK-MB), B-type natriuretic peptides (BNP), copeptin, C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), d-dimers, fibrinogen), especially focusing on the prognostic role of natriuretic peptides and of inflammatory indices. Research data on novel biomarkers (i.e., endocan, galectin, soluble suppression of tumorigenicity (sST2), microRNAs (miRNAs), soluble oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1 (sLOX-1), F2 isoprostanes, and growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF-15)) are further analyzed, aiming to shed light on the multiplicity of pathophysiologic mechanisms implicated in the evolution of ACS. By elucidating the complex interplay of these biomarkers in ACS pathophysiology, diagnosis, and outcomes, this review aims to enhance our understanding of the evolving trajectory and advancements in ACS management. However, further research is necessary to establish the clinical utility and integration of these biomarkers into routine practice to improve patient outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life13101992","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,1]],"date-time":"2023-10-01T16:58:09Z","timestamp":1696179489000},"page":"1992","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":60,"title":["Novel Biomarkers and Their Role in the Diagnosis and Prognosis of Acute Coronary Syndrome"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5728-9365","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Katsioupa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"3rd Department of Cardiology, Thoracic Diseases General Hospital \u201cSotiria\u201d, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8289-4869","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Islam","family":"Kourampi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3rd Department of Cardiology, Thoracic Diseases General Hospital \u201cSotiria\u201d, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8079-0599","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Evangelos","family":"Oikonomou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3rd Department of Cardiology, Thoracic Diseases General Hospital \u201cSotiria\u201d, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2416-1461","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vasiliki","family":"Tsigkou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3rd Department of Cardiology, Thoracic Diseases General Hospital \u201cSotiria\u201d, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9260-6306","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Panagiotis","family":"Theofilis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Department of Cardiology, \u201cHippokration\u201d General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Georgios","family":"Charalambous","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Emergency Medicine, \u201cHippokration\u201d General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2280-8361","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"George","family":"Marinos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hygiene, Epidemiology and Medical Statistics, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ioannis","family":"Gialamas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3rd Department of Cardiology, Thoracic Diseases General Hospital \u201cSotiria\u201d, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Konstantinos","family":"Zisimos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3rd Department of Cardiology, Thoracic Diseases General Hospital \u201cSotiria\u201d, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Artemis","family":"Anastasiou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3rd Department of Cardiology, Thoracic Diseases General Hospital \u201cSotiria\u201d, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Efstratios","family":"Katsianos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3rd Department of Cardiology, Thoracic Diseases General Hospital \u201cSotiria\u201d, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2036-6192","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Konstantinos","family":"Kalogeras","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3rd Department of Cardiology, Thoracic Diseases General Hospital \u201cSotiria\u201d, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ourania","family":"Katsarou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3rd Department of Cardiology, Thoracic Diseases General Hospital \u201cSotiria\u201d, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manolis","family":"Vavuranakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3rd Department of Cardiology, Thoracic Diseases General Hospital \u201cSotiria\u201d, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gerasimos","family":"Siasos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3rd Department of Cardiology, Thoracic Diseases General Hospital \u201cSotiria\u201d, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dimitris","family":"Tousoulis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Department of Cardiology, \u201cHippokration\u201d General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1736","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)32203-7","article-title":"Global, regional, and national age-sex-specific mortality for 282 causes of death in 195 countries and territories, 1980\u20132017: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017","volume":"392","author":"Collaborators","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehab892","article-title":"European Society of Cardiology: Cardiovascular disease 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