{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T18:30:38Z","timestamp":1780338638471,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,21]],"date-time":"2023-11-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1700524800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Research Fund at the Ministry of Education and Science, Bulgaria","award":["#K\u041f-06-M67\/2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#K\u041f-06-M67\/2"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The present study examined the physicochemical, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties of three medicinal plants: thyme (Thymus callieri Borb\u00e1s ex Velen), cotton thistle (Onopordum acanthium L.), and hawthorn fruit (Crataegus monogyna Jacq.) from the Western Rhodope Mountains, Bulgaria. The first stage determined the physicochemical characteristics (moisture, ash, carbohydrates, proteins, and vitamin C) of the three herbs. The second stage investigated four types of extracts (aqueous, oil, methanolic, and ethanolic) of each herb and evaluated their total phenolic content, the presence of phenolic compounds (flavonoids and phenolic acids), their antioxidant activity, and antimicrobial properties. Thyme was characterised by the highest ash, protein, and vitamin C content (6.62%, 11.30%, and 571 mg\/100 g, respectively). Hawthorn fruit showed the highest moisture and carbohydrate content (8.50% and 4.20%, respectively). The 70% ethanolic extracts of the three herbs exhibited the highest levels of phenolic compounds and, consequently, pronounced antioxidant activity, compared to the other three types of extracts. The aqueous, oil, methanolic, and ethanolic thyme extracts demonstrated the highest total phenolic content\u2014TPC (27.20 mg GAE\/g, 8.20 mg GAE\/g, 31.70 mg GAE\/g, and 310.00 mg GAE\/g, respectively), compared to the extracts of the other two plants. These results were consistent with the highest antioxidant activity of the thyme extracts determined using the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assay, the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assay, and the hydroxyl radical averting capacity (HORAC) assay (except for the oil extract examined using the DPPH method). The results from the high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis revealed that the flavonoid quercetin-3-\u00df-glucoside had the highest concentration in thyme (374.5 mg\/100 g), while myricetin dominated in the cotton thistle (152.3 mg\/100 g). The phenolic acid content analysis showed prevalence of rosmaric acid in the thyme (995 mg\/100 g), whereas chlorogenic acid was detected in the highest concentration in the cotton thistle and hawthorn fruit (324 mg\/100 g and 27.7 mg\/100 g, respectively). The aqueous, methanolic, and ethanolic extracts showed moderate to high antibacterial potential but limited antifungal activity. None of the oil extracts inhibited the test microorganisms used in the study.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life13122237","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,21]],"date-time":"2023-11-21T10:24:13Z","timestamp":1700562253000},"page":"2237","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Physicochemical, Antioxidant, and Antimicrobial Properties of Three Medicinal Plants from the Western Part of the Rhodope Mountains, Bulgaria"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3765-8338","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Albena","family":"Parzhanova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Technologies, Institute of Food Preservation and Quality, Agricultural Academy, 154 Vasil Aprilov Blvd., 4003 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0862-6238","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Velichka","family":"Yanakieva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, University of Food Technologies, 26 Maritsa Blvd., 4002 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ivelina","family":"Vasileva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Organic Chemistry and Inorganic Chemistry, University of Food Technologies, 26 Maritsa Blvd., 4002 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0328-6844","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Momchilova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Technologies, Institute of Food Preservation and Quality, Agricultural Academy, 154 Vasil Aprilov Blvd., 4003 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dimitar","family":"Dimitrov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Selection, Enology and Chemistry, Institute of Viticulture and Enology, Agricultural Academy, 1 Kala Tepe Str., 5800 Pleven, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0626-5435","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Petya","family":"Ivanova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Food Technologies, 26 Maritsa Blvd., 4002 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1674-5333","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yulian","family":"Tumbarski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, University of Food Technologies, 26 Maritsa Blvd., 4002 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/81.1.215S","article-title":"Polyphenols: Antioxidants and beyond","volume":"81","author":"Scalbert","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2007.06.011","article-title":"Tea polyphenols for health promotion","volume":"81","author":"Khan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2006.12.032","article-title":"Combination therapy of statin with flavonoids rich extract from chokeberry fruits enhanced reduction in cardiovascular risk markers in patients after myocardial infraction (MI)","volume":"194","author":"Naruszewicz","year":"2007","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"83","article-title":"Physico-chemical and biological activity of hawthorn (Crataegus spp. L.) fruits in Turkey","volume":"14","author":"Ercisli","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Sci. Pol. Hortorum Cultus"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1080\/09637480701706331","article-title":"The change of fruit quality parameters in day-neutral strawberries cv. Diamante grown out of season","volume":"60","author":"Voca","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"86","article-title":"Phytochemical and antioxidant characteristics of medlar fruits (Mespilus germanica L.)","volume":"85","author":"Ercisli","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Appl. Bot. Food Qual."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"105","article-title":"Phenolic content and antioxidant activities of fruit extracts of Morusnigra (Moraceae) from Southeast Serbia","volume":"12","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trop. J. Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.4161\/oxim.2.5.9498","article-title":"Plant polyphenols as dietary antioxidants in human health and disease","volume":"2","author":"Pandey","year":"2009","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"1711","article-title":"Comparative nutrient element and antioxidant characterisation of berry fruit species and cultivars grown in Hungary","volume":"43","author":"Hegedus","year":"2008","journal-title":"Hort. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.1021\/jf0719959","article-title":"Antioxidants, phenolic compounds, and nutritional quality of different strawberry genotypes","volume":"56","author":"Tulipani","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.2443","article-title":"Antioxidant and cytoprotective compounds from Berberis vulgaris (barberry)","volume":"22","author":"Tomosaka","year":"2008","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Popovici, V., Sturza, R., and Ghendov-Mo\u015fanu, A. (2021, January 7\u20138). Physico-chemical characteristics of lipophilic extracts of rosehip (Rosa Canina) and hawthorn (Crataegus) fruits. Proceedings of the International Conference Intelligent Valorisation of Agro-Food Industrial Wastes, Chi\u015fin\u0103u, Moldova."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mincheva, I., Naychov, Z., Radev, C., Aneva, I., Rastrelli, L., and Kozuharova, E. (2022). Ethnobotanical and Ethnopharmacological Study in the Bulgarian Rhodopes Mountains\u2014Part I. Diversity, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/d14080686"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"59","article-title":"Medicinal plants on the territory of the Municipality of Dospat","volume":"6","author":"Zahariev","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. BioSci. Biotech."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mincheva, I., Naychov, Z., Radev, C., Aneva, I., Rastrelli, L., Kamusheva, M., Nikolov, N., and Kozuharova, E. (2023). Ethnobotanical and Ethnopharmacological Study in the Bulgarian Mountain Rhodopes: Part II\u2014Contemporary Use of Medicinal Plants. Diversity, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/d15040482"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2016.05.146","article-title":"Effects of pretreatments on anthocyanin composition, phenolics contents and antioxidant capacities during fermentation of hawthorn (Crataegus pinnatifida) drink","volume":"212","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1370","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2011.01.103","article-title":"Quantitative analysis of phenolic compounds in Chinese hawthorn (Crataegus spp.) fruits by high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry","volume":"127","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104537","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fitote.2020.104537","article-title":"Quantification of North American and European Crataegus flavonoids by nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry","volume":"143","author":"Lund","year":"2020","journal-title":"Fitoterapia"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1007\/s10341-021-00545-x","article-title":"Determination of Some Physical and Chemical Properties of Common Hawthorn (Crataegus Monogyna Jacq. Var. Monogyna)","volume":"63","author":"Uslu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Erwerbs-Obstbau"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"4606","article-title":"The effect of medicinal plants and plant extracted oils on broiler duodenum morphology and immunological profile","volume":"14","author":"Stef","year":"2009","journal-title":"Rom. Biotech. Lett."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3234","DOI":"10.1080\/14786419.2021.1958215","article-title":"Chemical composition, antioxidant and antibacterial activity of Crataegus monogyna leaves\u2019 extracts","volume":"36","author":"Belabdelli","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7700","DOI":"10.1021\/jf801668c","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory, Gastroprotective, Free-Radical-Scavenging, and Antimicrobial Activities of Hawthorn Berries Ethanol Extract","volume":"56","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"117","article-title":"Phenolic Content, and Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activities of Crataegus Oxyacantha L. (Rosaceae) Fruit Extract from Southeast Serbia","volume":"11","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trop. J. Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.30574\/gscbps.2020.13.1.0344","article-title":"Determination of polyphenolic components by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and evaluation of the antioxidant activity of leaves and fruits of Crataegus mongyna Jacq","volume":"13","author":"Ziouche","year":"2020","journal-title":"GSC Biolog. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aneva, I., Zhelev, P., Bonchev, G., Boycheva, I., Simeonova, S., and Kancheva, D. (2022). DNA Barcoding Study of Representative Thymus Species in Bulgaria. Plants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants11030270"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Aneva, I., Zhelev, P., Nikolova, M., and Savev, S. (2019, January 3\u20136). Resource assessment of Adonis vernalis in representative Natural localities in western Bulgaria. Proceedings of the X International Scientific Agricultural Symposium \u201cAgrosym 2019\u201d, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1046","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2010.12.015","article-title":"Antimicrobial activity of Pistacia lentiscus and Satureja montana essential oils against Listeria monocytogenes CECT 935 using laboratory media: Efficacy and synergistic potential in minced beef","volume":"22","author":"Djenane","year":"2011","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hyldgaard, M., Mygind, T., and Meyer, R.L. (2012). Essential oils in food preservation: Mode of action, synergies, and interactions with food matrix components. Front. Microbiol., 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2012.00012"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"87","article-title":"Essential oil of Thymus pubescens Boiss. Et kotschy ex celak from different locality of lar valley","volume":"12","author":"Askari","year":"2002","journal-title":"Iran. J. Med. Aromat. Plants"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"29","article-title":"Essential oil composition of 5 thymus species","volume":"12","author":"Sefidkon","year":"2002","journal-title":"Iran. J. Med. Aromat. Plants"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.4141\/cjps10195","article-title":"The Biology of Canadian Weeds. 147. Onopordum acanthium L.","volume":"91","author":"Cavers","year":"2011","journal-title":"Can. J. Plant Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rolnik, A., and Olas, B. (2021). The plants of the Asteraceae family as agents in the protection of human health. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22063009"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"622","article-title":"Lipid Composition of Carduus thoermeri Weinm., Onopordum acanthium L. and Silybum marianum L., growing in Bulgaria","volume":"20","author":"Zhelev","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bulg. J. Agric. Sci. Agric. Acad."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2293","DOI":"10.1080\/14786419.2014.940944","article-title":"Variation in oil content, fatty acid and phytosterols profile of Onopordum acanthium L. during seed development","volume":"28","author":"Arfaoui","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2021). Spices and Condiments\u2014Determination of Moisture Content (Standard No. ISO 939:2021)."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2004). Spices and Condiments\u2014Determination of Total Ash (Standard No. ISO 928:2004)."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(1989). Products from Processed Fruits and Vegetables. Determination of Sugar\u2019s Content (Standard No. 7169:1989)."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(1982). Tinned Meat. Method for Determination of Protein Content According to Keldal (Standard No. 15438:1982)."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(1991). Processed Fruits and Vegetable Products. Determination of Ascorbic Acid Content (Vitamin C) (Standard No. 11812:1991)."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"296","article-title":"Antioxidant activities and phenolic compounds in Bulgarian Fumaria species","volume":"3","author":"Ivanov","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teneva, D., Pencheva, D., Petrova, A., Ognyanov, M., Georgiev, Y., and Denev, P. (2022). Addition of Medicinal Plants Increases Antioxidant Activity, Color, and Anthocyanin Stability of Black Chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) Functional Beverages. Plants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants11030243"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.17113\/ftb.56.04.18.5905","article-title":"Isolation, Characterisation and Amino Acid Composition of a Bacteriocin Produced by Bacillus methylotrophicus Strain BM47","volume":"56","author":"Tumbarski","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Technol. Biotech."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apjtb.2016.06.010","article-title":"Phenolic compounds of green tea: Health benefits and technological application in food","volume":"6","author":"Lorenzo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"673","article-title":"Evaluation of fatty acid compositions and some seed characters of common wild plant species of Turkey","volume":"36","author":"Tonguc","year":"2012","journal-title":"Turk. J. Agric. For."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"e2021082","article-title":"Fructans, polyphenols and antioxidant activity in edible roots and thistles from seven medicinal plants","volume":"20","author":"Petkova","year":"2021","journal-title":"CMU J. Nat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1016\/S0960-1481(98)00757-5","article-title":"Evaluation of solar dried thyme (Thymus vulgaris Linn\u00e9) herbs","volume":"17","author":"Balladin","year":"1999","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100092","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meafoo.2023.100092","article-title":"Nutritional composition, antioxidant activity and characterisation of bioactive compounds from Thymus serpyllum L.: An underexploited wild aromatic plant","volume":"10","author":"Shahar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Meas. Food."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2014.11.125","article-title":"Changes in physicochemical characteristics and free amino acids of hawthorn (Crataegus pinnatifida) fruits during maturation","volume":"175","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfoodeng.2004.08.032","article-title":"Hawthorn (Crataegus spp.) fruit: Some physical and chemical properties","volume":"69","author":"Arslan","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Food Eng."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"108","article-title":"Physico-chemical characteristics, antioxidant activity and mineral content of hawthorn fruits from Suceava County","volume":"15","author":"Mironeasa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Environ. Safet. J."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Yanar, M., Ka\u00e7ar, Y.A., and U\u011fur, Y. (2021, January 1\u20133). Chemical properties of some wild fruit species in Turkey. Proceedings of the III International Agricultural, Biological & Life Science Conference, Edirne, Turkey."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2003.06.020","article-title":"Extraction of antioxidant phenolics from almond hulls (Prunus amygdalus) and pine sawdust (Pinus pinaster)","volume":"85","author":"Pinelo","year":"2004","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2004.08.020","article-title":"Antioxidant activity, total phenolic compounds of pistachio (Pistachia vera) hull extracts","volume":"92","author":"Goli","year":"2005","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2004.04.035","article-title":"Antioxidant activities of buckwheat extracts","volume":"90","author":"Sun","year":"2005","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2012.08.029","article-title":"Evaluation of antioxidant activity, total phenols and phenolic compounds in thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), sage (Salvia officinalis L.), and marjoram (Origanum majorana L.) extracts","volume":"43","author":"Roby","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ind. Crop. Prod."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"514","article-title":"Antioxidant activity and polyphenol content of Turkish thyme (Thymus vulgaris) monitored by liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry","volume":"20","author":"Bursal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Prop."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5019","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-84449-6","article-title":"Polyphenolic and molecular variation in Thymus species using HPLC and SRAP analyses","volume":"11","author":"Sarfaraz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"74","article-title":"Factors affecting the amount of biologically active substances in extracts of Bulgarian medical plants typical of Western Rhodopes","volume":"54","author":"Georgieva","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bulg. Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"1804","article-title":"Evaluation of biologically active substance and antioxidant potential of medicinal plants extracts for food and cosmetic purposes","volume":"10","author":"Parzhanova","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2009.04.037","article-title":"Changes of flavonoid content and antioxidant capacity in blueberries after illumination with UV-C","volume":"117","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1970","DOI":"10.1890\/0012-9658(1999)080[1970:TOIPMO]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Trade-offs in phenolic metabolism of silver birch: Effects of fertilization, defoliation, and genotype","volume":"80","author":"Mutikainen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2018.02.059","article-title":"Study of two-stage ohmic hydro-extraction of essential oil from Artemisia aucheri Boiss.: Antioxidant and antimicrobial characteristics","volume":"107","author":"Asl","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4315","DOI":"10.1021\/jf021172d","article-title":"Elevated carbon dioxide increases contents of antioxidant compounds in field-grown strawberries","volume":"51","author":"Wang","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1051\/fruits\/2013102","article-title":"Wild blackthorn (Prunus spinosa L.) and hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna Jacq.) fruits as valuable sources of antioxidants","volume":"69","year":"2014","journal-title":"Fruits"},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Stoyanova, M. (2013). Investigation of the Content of Biologically Active Substances in Extracts of Fruits of Rosaceae Family. [PhD Thesis, University of Food Technologies]."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1080\/14786419.2018.1528589","article-title":"Chromatographic characterisation on flavonoids and triterpenes of leaves and flowers of 15 Crataegus L. species","volume":"34","author":"Khokhlova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.5455\/jice.20140120103320","article-title":"The investigation of some bioactive compounds and antioxidant properties of hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna subsp. monogyna Jacq)","volume":"3","author":"Keser","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Intercult. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"1509","article-title":"Antimicrobial activity of some medicinal plants used in Saudi Arabia","volume":"5","year":"2011","journal-title":"Can. J. Pure App. Sci."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"2602454","article-title":"Antioxidant, Antimicrobial Activities, and Characterisation of Phenolic Compounds of Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), Sage (Salvia officinalis L.), and Thyme\u2013Sage Mixture Extracts","volume":"9","author":"Mokhtari","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Food Qual."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martinelli, F., Perrone, A., Yousefi, S., Papini, A., Castiglione, S., Guarino, F., Cicatelli, A., Aelaei, M., Arad, N., and Gholami, M. (2021). Botanical, Phytochemical, Anti-Microbial and Pharmaceutical Characteristics of Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna Jacq.), Rosaceae. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26237266"},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"149","article-title":"Screening of antioxidant and antimicrobial potential of hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) fruit and leaves extracts","volume":"7","year":"2014","journal-title":"Erz. Univ. J. Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"287","article-title":"Evalation of Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activities of Crataegus monogyna","volume":"1\u20132","author":"Pugna","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hop. Med. Plants"},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"6","article-title":"Antibacterial Activity and Total Phenolic Content of the Onopordon acanthium L.","volume":"20","author":"Zare","year":"2014","journal-title":"Seeds. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chroma.2017.09.062","article-title":"Layer chromatography-bioassays directed screening and identification of antibacterial compounds from Scotch thistle","volume":"1524","author":"Alberti","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"}],"container-title":["Life"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1729\/13\/12\/2237\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:25:59Z","timestamp":1760131559000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1729\/13\/12\/2237"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,21]]},"references-count":74,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["life13122237"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/life13122237","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-1729"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-1729","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,21]]}}}