{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T03:24:12Z","timestamp":1792121052078,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,3]],"date-time":"2025-03-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1740960000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)","award":["NRF-2020R1A2C1011704"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2020R1A2C1011704"]}]},{"name":"National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)","award":["HV22C0160"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HV22C0160"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Health &amp; Welfare, Republic of Korea","award":["NRF-2020R1A2C1011704"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2020R1A2C1011704"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Health &amp; Welfare, Republic of Korea","award":["HV22C0160"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HV22C0160"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Micro- and nano-plastics (MNPs) are small plastic particles that result from the breakdown of larger plastics. They are widely dispersed in the environment and pose a threat to wildlife and humans. MNPs are present in almost all everyday items, including food, drinks, and household products. Air inhalation can also lead to exposure to MNPs. Research in animals indicates that once MNPs are absorbed, they can spread to various organs, including the liver, spleen, heart, lungs, thymus, reproductive organs, kidneys, and even the brain by crossing the blood\u2013brain barrier. Furthermore, MPs can transport persistent organic pollutants or heavy metals from invertebrates to higher levels in the food chain. When ingested, the additives and monomers that comprise MNPs can disrupt essential biological processes in the human body, thereby leading to disturbances in the endocrine and immune systems. During the 2019 coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, there was a significant increase in the global use of polypropylene-based face masks, leading to insufficient waste management and exacerbating plastic pollution. This review examines the existing research on the impact of MNP inhalation on human lung and kidney health based on in vitro and in vivo studies. Over the past decades, a wide range of studies suggest that MNPs can impact both lung and kidney tissues under both healthy and diseased conditions. Therefore, this review emphasizes the need for additional studies employing multi-approach analyses of various associated biomarkers and mechanisms to gain a comprehensive and precise understanding of the impact of MNPs on human health.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life15030392","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,3]],"date-time":"2025-03-03T09:04:49Z","timestamp":1740992689000},"page":"392","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":47,"title":["Micro- and Nano-Plastic-Induced Adverse Health Effects on Lungs and Kidneys Linked to Oxidative Stress and Inflammation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Seung Eun","family":"Lee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Do Yun","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Science, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Taek Seung","family":"Jeong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Science, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9260-3102","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yong Seek","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coesh.2017.10.003","article-title":"Micro(nano)plastics: A threat to human health?","volume":"1","author":"Revel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Environ. Sci. Health"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2018.10.020","article-title":"Microplastics in freshwater environments: A review of quantification assessment","volume":"113","author":"Mendoza","year":"2019","journal-title":"TrAC-Trends Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.06.327","article-title":"Occurrence and distribution of microplastics in an urban river: A case study in the Pearl River along Guangzhou City, China","volume":"644","author":"Lin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2018.10.025","article-title":"Micro- (nano) plastics in freshwater ecosystems: Abundance, toxicological impact and quantification methodology","volume":"110","author":"Strungaru","year":"2019","journal-title":"TrAC-Trends Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125476","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2021.125476","article-title":"Studying microplastics: Lessons from evaluated literature on animal model organisms and experimental approaches","volume":"414","author":"Prokic","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123660","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2020.123660","article-title":"Contamination issues as a challenge in quality control and quality assurance in microplastics analytics","volume":"403","author":"Prata","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eriksen, M., Cowger, W., Erdle, L.M., Coffin, S., Villarrubia-Gomez, P., Moore, C.J., Carpenter, E.J., Day, R.H., Thiel, M., and Wilcox, C. (2023). A growing plastic smog, now estimated to be over 170 trillion plastic particles afloat in the world\u2019s oceans-Urgent solutions required. PLoS ONE, 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0281596"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ricciardi, M., Pironti, C., Motta, O., Miele, Y., Proto, A., and Montano, L. (2021). Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment: Occurrence, Persistence, Analysis, and Human Exposure. Water, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/w13070973"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13503","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.13503","article-title":"Harmful effects of the microplastic pollution on animal health: A literature review","volume":"10","author":"Zolotova","year":"2022","journal-title":"Peerj"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abg5433","article-title":"The global threat from plastic pollution","volume":"373","author":"MacLeo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1030","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2018.01.024","article-title":"Current opinion: What is a nanoplastic?","volume":"235","author":"Gigault","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2018.01.041","article-title":"The unaccountability case of plastic pellet pollution","volume":"129","author":"Karlsson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"1","article-title":"Occurrence, Degradation, and Effect of Polymer-Based Materials in the Environment","volume":"227","author":"Lambert","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4673","DOI":"10.1007\/s13762-022-04261-1","article-title":"Microplastics in environment: Global concern, challenges, and controlling measures","volume":"20","author":"Lamichhane","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2013.08.023","article-title":"Sorption capacity of plastic debris for hydrophobic organic chemicals","volume":"470","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1704","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.7b05559","article-title":"Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Aquatic Environments: Aggregation, Deposition, and Enhanced Contaminant Transport","volume":"52","author":"Alimi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2015.09.027","article-title":"Abundance, size and polymer composition of marine microplastics \u2265 10 \u03bcm in the Atlantic Ocean and their modelled vertical distribution","volume":"100","author":"Enders","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Llorca, M., and Farr\u00e9, M. (2021). Current Insights into Potential Effects of Micro-Nanoplastics on Human Health by Tests. Front. Toxicol., 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/ftox.2021.752140"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2023.119433","article-title":"Microplastics in the environment: A critical overview on its fate, toxicity, implications, management, and bioremediation strategies","volume":"349","author":"Thacharodi","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.163144","article-title":"The detrimental effects of micro-and nano-plastics on digestive system: An overview of oxidative stress-related adverse outcome pathway","volume":"878","author":"Ding","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, M.Y., and Palic, D. (2020). Micro- and nano-plastics activation of oxidative and inflammatory adverse outcome pathways. Redox Biol., 37.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2020.101620"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kadac-Czapska, K., Osko, J., Knez, E., and Grembecka, M. (2024). Microplastics and Oxidative Stress-Current Problems and Prospects. Antioxidants, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox13050579"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2023.114539","article-title":"Polystyrene microplastics induced inflammation with activating the TLR2 signal by excessive accumulation of ROS in hepatopancreas of carp (Cyprinus carpio)","volume":"251","author":"Cui","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Umamaheswari, S., Priyadarshinee, S., Kadirvelu, K., and Ramesh, M. (2021). Polystyrene microplastics induce apoptosis via ROS-mediated p53 signaling pathway in zebrafish. Chem. Biol. Interact., 345.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbi.2021.109550"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquatox.2018.08.017","article-title":"Age-dependent survival, stress defense, and AMPK in Daphnia pulex after short-term exposure to a polystyrene nanoplastic","volume":"204","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Aquat. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105420","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquatox.2020.105420","article-title":"Polystyrene nanoplastic induces ROS production and affects the MAPK-HIF-1\/NFkB-mediated antioxidant system in Daphnia pulex","volume":"220","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aquat. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112661","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2021.112661","article-title":"Oxidative stress induced by nanoplastics in the liver of juvenile large yellow croaker Larimichthys crocea","volume":"170","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8849","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6b01441","article-title":"Microplastic Size-Dependent Toxicity, Oxidative Stress Induction, and p-JNK and p-p38 Activation in the Monogonont Rotifer (Brachionus koreanus)","volume":"50","author":"Jeong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2483","DOI":"10.1002\/tox.23611","article-title":"Polystyrene microplastics induce apoptosis and necroptosis in swine testis cells via ROS\/MAPK\/HIF1\u03b1 pathway","volume":"37","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125962","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2021.125962","article-title":"Polystyrene microplastics-induced ROS overproduction disrupts the skeletal muscle regeneration by converting myoblasts into adipocytes","volume":"417","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2552","DOI":"10.1002\/tox.23618","article-title":"Polystyrene nanoplastics exacerbated lipopolysaccharide-induced necroptosis and inflammation via the ROS\/MAPK pathway in mice spleen","volume":"37","author":"Tang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115970","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2024.115970","article-title":"Microplastics induced apoptosis in macrophages by promoting ROS generation and altering metabolic profiles","volume":"271","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2018.07.110","article-title":"Polystyrene microplastics alter the behavior, energy reserve and nutritional composition of marine jacopever (Sebastes schlegelii)","volume":"360","author":"Yin","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-020-01876-4","article-title":"Lipocalin 2 induces neuroinflammation and blood-brain barrier dysfunction through liver-brain axis in murine model of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis","volume":"17","author":"Mondal","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, H., Wang, Y., Zhang, Y.P., Xu, F., Chen, J.P., Duan, L.L., Zhang, T.T., Wang, J., and Zhang, F.J. (2020). Breaking the vicious loop between inflammation, oxidative stress and coagulation, a novel anti-thrombus insight of nattokinase by inhibiting LPS-induced inflammation and oxidative stress. Redox Biol., 32.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2020.101500"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsi.2022.04.048","article-title":"Polystyrene nanoplastics induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis and myocardial inflammation in carp by promoting ROS production","volume":"125","author":"Wu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Fish Shellfish Immun."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155825","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.155825","article-title":"Oxidative stress mediated by the TLR4\/NOX2 signalling axis is involved in polystyrene microplastic-induced uterine fibrosis in mice?","volume":"838","author":"Wu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2022.107248","article-title":"Effects of polystyrene nanoplastics on endothelium senescence and its underlying mechanism","volume":"164","author":"Shiwakoti","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Annesley, S.J., and Fisher, P.R. (2019). Mitochondria in Health and Disease. Cells, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells8070680"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"940","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbabio.2018.05.019","article-title":"Mitochondrial uncoupling, ROS generation and cardioprotection","volume":"1859","author":"Cadenas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Bioenerg."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, S.E., Yi, Y., Moon, S., Yoon, H., and Park, Y.S. (2022). Impact of Micro- and Nanoplastics on Mitochondria. Metabolites, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo12100897"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146753","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.146753","article-title":"Polystyrene microplastics-triggered mitophagy and oxidative burst via activation of PERK pathway","volume":"781","author":"Pan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136895","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2022.136895","article-title":"Effects of chronic exposure of naturally weathered microplastics on oxidative stress level, behaviour, and mitochondrial function of adult zebrafish (Danio rerio)","volume":"310","author":"Carreira","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121995","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2024.121995","article-title":"Aged polystyrene microplastics exposure affects apoptosis via inducing mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in early life of zebrafish","volume":"367","author":"Ding","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174737","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2024.174737","article-title":"Impact of polystyrene nanoplastics on apoptosis and inflammation in zebrafish larvae: Insights from reactive oxygen species perspective","volume":"948","author":"Pei","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10771","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.2c05474","article-title":"Di-(2-Ethylhexyl) Phthalate and Microplastics Induced Neuronal Apoptosis through the PI3K\/AKT Pathway and Mitochondrial Dysfunction","volume":"70","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113520","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2022.113520","article-title":"Polystyrene microplastics induce mitochondrial damage in mouse GC-2 cells","volume":"237","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1177\/07482337211065832","article-title":"Differences in sensitivity of human lymphocytes and fish lymphocytes to polyvinyl chloride microplastic toxicity","volume":"38","author":"Salimi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Toxicol. Ind. Health"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12483","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.2c03980","article-title":"Metabolomics Reveal Nanoplastic-Induced Mitochondrial Damage in Human Liver and Lung Cells","volume":"56","author":"Lin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2022.128485","article-title":"Toxic effects of nanoplastics with different sizes and surface charges on epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in A549 cells and the potential toxicological mechanism","volume":"430","author":"Halimu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2018.02.069","article-title":"Low levels of microplastics (MP) in wild mussels indicate that MP ingestion by humans is minimal compared to exposure via household fibres fallout during a meal","volume":"237","author":"Catarino","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Kershaw, P.J. (2016). Marine Plastic Debris and Microplastics\u2013Global Lessons and Research to Inspire Action and Guide Policy Change, United Nations Environment Programme."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2016.09.025","article-title":"Release of synthetic microplastic plastic fibres from domestic washing machines: Effects of fabric type and washing conditions","volume":"112","author":"Napper","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3288","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.9b06892","article-title":"Microfiber Release to Water, Via Laundering, and to Air, via Everyday Use: A Comparison between Polyester Clothing with Differing Textile Parameters","volume":"54","author":"Cocca","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1069","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrestox.0c00486","article-title":"Exposure of Human Lung Cells to Polystyrene Microplastics Significantly Retards Cell Proliferation and Triggers Morphological Changes","volume":"34","author":"Goodman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Res. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2476","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.1c03859","article-title":"Detection and Analysis of Microplastics in Human Sputum","volume":"56","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coesh.2017.10.002","article-title":"Microplastics in air: Are we breathing it in?","volume":"1","author":"Gasperi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Environ. Sci. Health"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2017.11.043","article-title":"Airborne microplastics: Consequences to human health?","volume":"234","author":"Prata","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6634","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.7b00423","article-title":"Plastic and Human Health: A Micro Issue?","volume":"51","author":"Wright","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Facciol\u00e0, A., Visalli, G., Ciarello, M.P., and Di Pietro, A. (2021). Newly Emerging Airborne Pollutants: Current Knowledge of Health Impact of Micro and Nanoplastics. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18062997"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kannan, K., and Vimalkumar, K. (2021). A Review of Human Exposure to Microplastics and Insights Into Microplastics as Obesogens. Front. Endocrinol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2021.724989"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-023-02475-6","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of asthma and its attributable risk factors from 1990 to 2019: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019","volume":"24","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.4168\/aair.2010.2.3.183","article-title":"The Role of Oxidative Stress in the Pathogenesis of Asthma","volume":"2","author":"Cho","year":"2010","journal-title":"Allergy Asthma Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E32","DOI":"10.21037\/jtd.2017.01.05","article-title":"Recent developments in the role of reactive oxygen species in allergic asthma","volume":"9","author":"Qu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Dis."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L642","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00275.2017","article-title":"Mechanisms and consequences of oxidative stress in lung disease: Therapeutic implications for an aging populace","volume":"314","author":"Hecker","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1136","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.120.4.1136","article-title":"Elevated concentrations of exhaled hydrogen peroxide in asthmatic patients","volume":"120","author":"Emelyanov","year":"2001","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm\/145.2_Pt_1.317","article-title":"Enhanced Superoxide Production by Alveolar Macrophages and Air-Space Cells, Airway Inflammation, and Alveolar Macrophage Density Changes after Segmental Antigen Bronchoprovocation in Allergic Subjects","volume":"145","author":"Calhoun","year":"1992","journal-title":"Am. Rev. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1725","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.151.6.7767513","article-title":"Spontaneous Oxygen Radical Production at Sites of Antigen Challenge in Allergic Subjects","volume":"151","author":"Sanders","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2012.01.003","article-title":"Hyperoxidized peroxiredoxins in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of asthma patients is associated with asthma severity","volume":"90","author":"Kwon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1097\/MCP.0000000000000644","article-title":"Asthma and air pollution: Recent insights in pathogenesis and clinical implications","volume":"26","author":"Bontinck","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000147","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00147-2020","article-title":"Air pollution and the development of asthma from birth until young adulthood","volume":"56","author":"Gehring","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1973.03230060017005","article-title":"Meat-wrapper\u2019s asthma. A new syndrome?","volume":"226","author":"Sokol","year":"1973","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1976.03260350047032","article-title":"Editorial: Meat-wrapper\u2019s respiratory tract disease","volume":"235","author":"Hussey","year":"1976","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12594","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.3c01771","article-title":"Microplastics in the Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid of Chinese Children: Associations with Age, City Development, and Disease Features","volume":"57","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5363","DOI":"10.1007\/s00405-023-08105-7","article-title":"Detection of microplastics in patients with allergic rhinitis","volume":"280","author":"Tuna","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126069","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2021.126069","article-title":"Detrimental effects of microplastic exposure on normal and asthmatic pulmonary physiology","volume":"416","author":"Lu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2023.07.013","article-title":"Co-exposure to polystyrene microplastics and di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate aggravates allergic asthma through the TRPA1-p38 MAPK pathway","volume":"384","author":"Han","year":"2023","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2227","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)00470-6","article-title":"Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","volume":"399","author":"Christenson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AL Wachami, N., Guennouni, M., Iderdar, Y., Boumendil, K., Arraji, M., Mourajid, Y., Bouchachi, F.Z., Barkaoui, M., Louerdi, M.L., and Hilali, A. (2024). Estimating the global prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health, 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-024-17686-9"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, K., Zhan, D.T., Fang, Y.Y., Li, L., Chen, G.B., Chen, S.Z., and Wang, L.W. (2022). Microplastics, potential threat to patients with lung diseases. Front. Toxicol., 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/ftox.2022.958414"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2018.10.039","article-title":"Distribution and potential health impacts of microplastics and microrubbers in air and street dusts from Asaluyeh County, Iran","volume":"244","author":"Abbasi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8496","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.3c00716","article-title":"New Evidence of Microplastics in the Lower Respiratory Tract: Inhalation through Smoking","volume":"57","author":"Lu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121575","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2019.121575","article-title":"Polystyrene microplastic particles: In vitro pulmonary toxicity assessment","volume":"385","author":"Dong","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131962","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2023.131962","article-title":"Sentinel supervised lung-on-a-chip: A new environmental toxicology platform for nanoplastic-induced lung injury","volume":"458","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108489","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2024.108489","article-title":"Microplastics exposure causes the senescence of human lung epithelial cells and mouse lungs by inducing ROS signaling","volume":"185","author":"Jin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123633","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2024.123633","article-title":"Inhalation exposure to polystyrene nanoplastics induces chronic obstructive pulmonary disease-like lung injury in mice through multi-dimensional assessment","volume":"347","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2024.174300","article-title":"Inhaled polystyrene microplastics impaired lung function through pulmonary flora\/TLR4-mediated iron homeostasis imbalance","volume":"946","author":"Kang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2023.08.010","article-title":"Pulmonary fibrosis: From pathogenesis to clinical decision-making","volume":"29","author":"Koudstaal","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1028","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.2807","article-title":"Mechanisms of fibrosis: Therapeutic translation for fibrotic disease","volume":"18","author":"Wynn","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(20)30062-X","article-title":"Progress in the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"8","author":"Wijsenbeek","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200501-017PP","article-title":"Oxidative stress in pulmonary fibrosis\u2014A possible role for redox modulatory therapy","volume":"172","author":"Kinnula","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_92","first-page":"433","article-title":"Pneumoconiosis caused by the inhalation of polyvinylchloride dust","volume":"61","author":"Szende","year":"1970","journal-title":"Med. Lav."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"828","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.78.6.828","article-title":"Pulmonary manifestations of vinyl and polyvinyl chloride (interstitial lung disease). Newer aspects","volume":"78","author":"Cordasco","year":"1980","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1136\/thx.50.5.583","article-title":"Pneumoconiosis and systemic sclerosis following 10 years of exposure to polyvinyl chloride dust","volume":"50","author":"Studnicka","year":"1995","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.1.6015.936","article-title":"Immunological mechanisms in the pathogenesis of vinyl chloride disease","volume":"1","author":"Ward","year":"1976","journal-title":"Br. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2022.107257","article-title":"Inhaled tire-wear microplastic particles induced pulmonary fibrotic injury via epithelial cytoskeleton rearrangement","volume":"164","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116357","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2024.116357","article-title":"Polystyrene microplastics induce pulmonary fibrosis by promoting alveolar epithelial cell ferroptosis through cGAS\/STING signaling","volume":"277","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2022.113238","article-title":"Intratracheal administration of polystyrene microplastics induces pulmonary fibrosis by activating oxidative stress and Wnt\/\u03b2-catenin signaling pathway in mice","volume":"232","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.30913","article-title":"Polystyrene nanoplastics aggravates lipopolysaccharide-induced apoptosis in mouse kidney cells by regulating IRE1\/XBP1 endoplasmic reticulum stress pathway via oxidative stress","volume":"238","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Cell. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164808","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.164808","article-title":"Investigation of nephrotoxicity on mice exposed to polystyrene nanoplastics and the potential amelioration effects of DHA-enriched phosphatidylserine","volume":"892","author":"Tang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deng, Y.F., Zhang, Y., Lemos, B., and Ren, H.Q. (2017). Tissue accumulation of microplastics in mice and biomarker responses suggest widespread health risks of exposure. Sci. Rep., 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep46687"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57003","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP7612","article-title":"The Kidney-Related Effects of Polystyrene Microplastics on Human Kidney Proximal Tubular Epithelial Cells HK-2 and Male C57BL\/6 Mice","volume":"129","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132631","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2021.132631","article-title":"Effects of nano- and microplastics on kidney: Physicochemical properties, bioaccumulation, oxidative stress and immunoreaction","volume":"288","author":"Meng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2022.153296","article-title":"Polystyrene microplastics induced oxidative stress, inflammation and necroptosis via NF-\u03baB and RIP1\/RIP3\/MLKL pathway in chicken kidney","volume":"478","author":"Meng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34136","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.2c03453","article-title":"Effects of Polystyrene Microplastics on Human Kidney and Liver Cell Morphology, Cellular Proliferation, and Metabolism","volume":"7","author":"Goodman","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2022.113521","article-title":"Combined exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and polystyrene microplastics induced renal autophagy through the ROS\/AMPK\/ULK1 pathway","volume":"171","author":"Sun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zou, H., Chen, Y., Qu, H.Y., Sun, J., Wang, T., Ma, Y.G., Yuan, Y., Bian, J.C., and Liu, Z.P. (2022). Microplastics Exacerbate Cadmium-Induced Kidney Injury by Enhancing Oxidative Stress, Autophagy, Apoptosis, and Fibrosis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232214411"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114821","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2023.114821","article-title":"The microplastics exposure induce the kidney injury in mice revealed by RNA-seq","volume":"256","author":"Xiong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2350","DOI":"10.1002\/tox.24115","article-title":"Toxicological effects of microplastics in renal ischemia-reperfusion injury","volume":"39","author":"Kuang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114888","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2024.114888","article-title":"Polystyrene microplastics facilitate renal fibrosis through accelerating tubular epithelial cell senescence","volume":"191","author":"Pan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116098","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2024.116098","article-title":"Polystyrene microplastic-induced extracellular vesicles cause kidney-related effects in the crosstalk between tubular cells and fibroblasts","volume":"273","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153996","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2024.153996","article-title":"Chronic exposure to polystyrene microplastics induces renal fibrosis via ferroptosis","volume":"509","author":"Hong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1039\/D4EN00267A","article-title":"A review on the role of nanotechnological interventions in sequestration, mitigation and value-added product conversion of micro-\/nanoplastics","volume":"12","author":"Das","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Sci.-Nano"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19788","DOI":"10.1039\/D1RA03097C","article-title":"Development of a schwarzite-based moving bed 3D printed water treatment system for nanoplastic remediation","volume":"11","author":"Gupta","year":"2021","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129816","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2021.129816","article-title":"Identification and removal of micro- and nano-plastics: Efficient and cost-effective methods","volume":"421","author":"Kundu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1177\/0734242X16683272","article-title":"Challenges and opportunities of biodegradable plastics: A mini review","volume":"35","author":"Pilipovic","year":"2017","journal-title":"Waste Manag. Res."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1007\/s13273-022-00289-z","article-title":"Physical and biomimetic treatment methods to reduce microplastic waste accumulation","volume":"19","author":"Lee","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2020.114469","article-title":"Are biodegradable plastics a promising solution to solve the global plastic pollution?","volume":"263","author":"Shen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."}],"container-title":["Life"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1729\/15\/3\/392\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:46:03Z","timestamp":1760028363000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1729\/15\/3\/392"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,3]]},"references-count":118,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3]]}},"alternative-id":["life15030392"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/life15030392","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-1729"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-1729","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,3]]}}}