{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]],"date-time":"2026-08-04T22:44:26Z","timestamp":1785883466978,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":374,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,21]],"date-time":"2025-05-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747785600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper applies a semi-quantitative approach to review the diversity, environmental controls, detection methods, human health risks, and mitigation of cyanotoxins in drinking water systems (DWSs). It discusses the environmental factors controlling the occurrence of cyanotoxins, presents the merits and limitations of emerging methods of their detection (qPCR, liquid chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry, and electrochemical biosensors), and outlines the human exposure pathways and health outcomes with identification of high-risk groups and settings. High-risk groups include (1) communities relying on untreated drinking water from unsafe, polluted water sources and (2) low-income countries where cyanotoxins are not routinely monitored in DWSs. The fate and behavior processes are discussed, including removing cyanotoxins in DWSs based on conventional and advanced treatment processes. The available methods for cyanotoxin removal presented in this paper include (1) polymer-based adsorbents, (2) coagulation\/flocculation, (3) advanced oxidation processes, (4) ultra- and nanofiltration, and (5) multi-soil layer systems. Future research should address (1) detection and fate in storage and conveyance facilities and at the point of consumption, (2) degradation pathways and toxicity of by-products or metabolites, (3) interactive health effects of cyanotoxins with legacy and emerging contaminants, (4) removal by low-cost treatment techniques (e.g., solar disinfection, boiling, bio-sand filtration, and chlorination), (5) quantitative health risk profiling of high-risk groups, and (6) epidemiological studies to link the prevalence of human health outcomes (e.g., cancer) to cyanotoxins in DWSs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life15050825","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,21]],"date-time":"2025-05-21T09:58:22Z","timestamp":1747821502000},"page":"825","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Global Occurrence of Cyanotoxins in Drinking Water Systems: Recent Advances, Human Health Risks, Mitigation, and Future Directions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Jerikias","family":"Marumure","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics, Geography and Environmental Science, School of Natural Sciences, Great Zimbabwe University, Masvingo, Zimbabwe"},{"name":"Department of Life and Consumer Sciences, School of Agriculture and Life Sciences, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, Pretoria 0002, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3149-1052","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Willis","family":"Gwenzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Formerly Alexander von Humboldt Fellow, Leibniz-Institut f\u00fcr Agrartechnik und Bio\u00f6konomie e.V. (ATB), Max-Eyth-Allee 100, D-14469 Potsdam, Germany"},{"name":"Formerly Alexander von Humboldt Fellow, Grassland Science and Renewable Plant Resources, Faculty of Organic Agricultural Sciences, Universit\u00e4t Kassel, Steinstra\u00dfe 19, D-37213 Witzenhausen, Germany"},{"name":"Independent Researcher, Biosystems & Environmental Engineering Research Group, 380 New Adylin, Westgate, Harare, Zimbabwe"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8840-0740","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zakio","family":"Makuvara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics, Geography and Environmental Science, School of Natural Sciences, Great Zimbabwe University, Masvingo, Zimbabwe"},{"name":"Department of Life and Consumer Sciences, School of Agriculture and Life Sciences, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, Pretoria 0002, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tinoziva T.","family":"Simbanegavi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Soil Science and Environment, Faculty of Agriculture, Environment, and Food Systems, University of Zimbabwe, P.O. 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