{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]],"date-time":"2026-07-28T05:16:41Z","timestamp":1785215801095,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":267,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,22]],"date-time":"2025-05-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747872000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Specific gut microorganisms and their metabolic by-products have been identified as key regulators of host physiology, contributing to the modulation of the immune system, inflammatory processes, brain function, and behavior, which highlights the gut microbiome as a potential modulator of the neurobiological mechanisms involved in substance use disorders. This narrative review provides an updated overview of how drugs of abuse influence the composition and dynamics of the human gut microbiome and how bacterial dysbiosis may be a contributing factor to substance use disorders by modulating the communication between the gut and the brain. Thus, by examining commonly abused substances such as alcohol, psychostimulants, opioids, cannabinoids, and nicotine, this review aimed to deepen the understanding of the bidirectional relationship between the gut microbiome and substance use. There is evidence indicating that gut microbiome alterations may influence addiction through changes in gut-brain signaling. Furthermore, changes in the gut microbiome and its metabolites may not only result from substance use disorders, but could also modulate behavioral responses to drugs of abuse. Although the exact mechanisms by which the gut microbiome modulates behavioral responses to drugs of abuse are not fully understood, microbial products such as short-chain fatty acids, tryptophan metabolites, bile acids, and neurotransmitters have been suggested to play a role in this process by influencing the blood\u2013brain barrier permeability, host immune activation, neural signaling, and gene expression. Therefore, manipulating the gut microbiome or its by-products may represent a promising approach for enhancing substance use disorder treatments, identifying individuals at increased risk of pathological drug use, and elucidating its role in substance-related behaviors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life15060834","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,22]],"date-time":"2025-05-22T08:49:57Z","timestamp":1747903797000},"page":"834","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["The Bidirectional Interplay Between Substances of Abuse and Gut Microbiome Homeostasis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4699-3031","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alejandro","family":"Borrego-Ruiz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Psicolog\u00eda Social y de las Organizaciones, Universidad Nacional de Educaci\u00f3n a Distancia (UNED), 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2174-0652","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan J.","family":"Borrego","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Microbiolog\u00eda, Universidad de M\u00e1laga, 29071 M\u00e1laga, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"47","article-title":"Motivaci\u00f3n intr\u00ednseca y consumo de drogas: Una revisi\u00f3n de estudios sobre los motivos de curiosidad y de expansi\u00f3n","volume":"24","year":"2024","journal-title":"Health Addict."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2023.08.004","article-title":"Clinical and preclinical evidence for gut microbiome mechanisms in substance use disorder","volume":"95","author":"Hofford","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1002\/jaba.2911","article-title":"Evolution of the substance use landscape: Implications for contingency management","volume":"58","author":"Goodwin","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Appl. Behav. Anal."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-024-01554-9","article-title":"Intensifying substance use trends among youth: A narrative review of recent trends and implications","volume":"26","author":"Harris","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peart, D.R., Andrade, A.K., Logan, C.N., Knackstedt, L.A., and Murray, J.E. (2022). Regulation of cocaine-related behaviours by estrogen and progesterone. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 135.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2022.104584"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wemm, S.E., and Sinha, R. (2019). Drug-induced stress responses and addiction risk and relapse. Neurobiol. Stress, 10.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ynstr.2019.100148"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.irn.2020.09.005","article-title":"The role of gut-immune-brain signaling in substance use disorders","volume":"157","author":"Lucerne","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1513","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-019-05232-0","article-title":"A potential role for the gut microbiome in substance use disorders","volume":"236","author":"Meckel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Russell, J.T., Zhou, Y., Weinstock, G.M., and Bubier, J.A. (2021). The gut microbiome and substance use disorder. Front. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2021.725500"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1007\/164_2016_116","article-title":"Insights into the role of opioid receptors in the GI tract: Experimental evidence and therapeutic relevance","volume":"239","author":"Galligan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Handb. Exp. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1038\/nature25979","article-title":"Extensive impact of non-antibiotic drugs on human gut bacteria","volume":"555","author":"Maier","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-021-10022-7","article-title":"Drugs and bugs: The gut-brain axis and substance use disorders","volume":"17","author":"Simpson","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1007\/s10620-020-06112-w","article-title":"Diet and the human gut microbiome: An international review","volume":"65","author":"Wilson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rinninella, E., Raoul, P., Cintoni, M., Franceschi, F., Miggiano, G.A.D., Gasbarrini, A., and Mele, M.C. (2019). What is the healthy gut microbiota composition? A changing ecosystem across age, environment, diet, and diseases. Microorganisms, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms7010014"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borrego-Ruiz, A., and Borrego, J.J. (2024). An updated overview on the relationship between human gut microbiome dysbiosis and psychiatric and psychological disorders. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry, 128.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2023.110861"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-016-0307-y","article-title":"The healthy human microbiome","volume":"8","author":"Huttenhower","year":"2016","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8787","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v21.i29.8787","article-title":"Role of the normal gut microbiota","volume":"21","author":"Jandhyala","year":"2015","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosenberg, E. (2024). Diversity of bacteria within the human gut and its contribution to the functional unity of holobionts. NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes, 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41522-024-00580-y"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2024.112497","article-title":"Influence of human gut microbiome on the healthy and the neurodegenerative aging","volume":"194","author":"Borrego","year":"2024","journal-title":"Exp. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10123-024-00518-6","article-title":"Human gut microbiome, diet, and mental disorders","volume":"28","author":"Borrego","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-022-00605-x","article-title":"The gut microbiome as a modulator of healthy ageing","volume":"19","author":"Ghosh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2019.01.011","article-title":"Stress, depression, diet, and the gut microbiota: Human-bacteria interactions at the core of psychoneuroimmunology and nutrition","volume":"28","author":"Madison","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1038\/nature25973","article-title":"Environment dominates over host genetics in shaping human gut microbiota","volume":"555","author":"Rothschild","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, Y., Xie, Z., Wang, H., Shen, Z., Guo, Y., Gao, Y., Chen, X., Wu, Q., Li, X., and Wang, K. (2017). Bacterial diversity of intestinal microbiota in patients with substance use disorders revealed by 16S rRNA gene deep sequencing. Sci. Rep., 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-03706-9"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Das, B., and Nair, G.B. (2019). Homeostasis and dysbiosis of the gut microbiome in health and disease. J. Biosci., 44.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12038-019-9926-y"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hrncir, T. (2022). Gut microbiota dysbiosis: Triggers, consequences, diagnostic and therapeutic options. Microorganisms, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10030578"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonaz, B., Bazin, T., and Pellissier, S. (2018). The vagus nerve at the interface of the microbiota-gut-brain axis. Front. Neurosci., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2018.00049"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"998","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2019.02.008","article-title":"Gut microbe to brain signaling: What happens in vagus...","volume":"101","author":"Dinan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aad9378","article-title":"How colonization by microbiota in early life shapes the immune system","volume":"352","author":"Gensollen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1038\/s41422-020-0332-7","article-title":"Interaction between microbiota and immunity in health and disease","volume":"30","author":"Zheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.3780","article-title":"Regulation of inflammation by microbiota interactions with the host","volume":"18","author":"Blander","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"j5145","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.j5145","article-title":"The role of the gut microbiome in systemic inflammatory disease","volume":"360","author":"Clemente","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2015.02.021","article-title":"Collective unconscious: How gut microbes shape human behavior","volume":"63","author":"Dinan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, T.T., Lai, J.B., Du, Y.L., Xu, Y., Ruan, L.M., and Hu, S.H. (2019). Current understanding of gut microbiota in mood disorders: An update of human studies. Front. Genet., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2019.00098"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1946368","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2021.1946368","article-title":"Chronic opioid use modulates human enteric microbiota and intestinal barrier integrity","volume":"13","author":"Johnson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martinez, J.E., Kahana, D.D., Ghuman, S., Wilson, H.P., Wilson, J., Kim, S.C.J., Lagishetty, V., Jacobs, J.P., Sinha-Hikim, A.P., and Friedman, T.C. (2021). Unhealthy lifestyle and gut dysbiosis: A better understanding of the effects of poor diet and nicotine on the intestinal microbiome. Front. Endocrinol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2021.667066"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e934475","DOI":"10.12659\/MSM.934475","article-title":"Review articles, systematic reviews, meta-analysis, and the updated preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines","volume":"27","author":"Parums","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Monit."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.63.9.957","article-title":"Gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptors and alcoholism: Intoxication, dependence, vulnerability, and treatment","volume":"63","author":"Krystal","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-017-2462-y","article-title":"GluN2B subunit of the NMDA receptor: The keystone of the effects of alcohol during neurodevelopment","volume":"44","author":"Naassila","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurochem. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(09)60009-X","article-title":"Alcohol-use disorders","volume":"373","author":"Schuckit","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jceh.2018.04.012","article-title":"Delirium tremens: Assessment and management","volume":"8","author":"Grover","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1238","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.15121","article-title":"A systematic review of relative risks for the relationship between chronic alcohol use and the occurrence of disease","volume":"47","author":"Levesque","year":"2023","journal-title":"Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1916278","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2021.1916278","article-title":"Alcohol as friend or foe in autoimmune diseases: A role for gut microbiome?","volume":"13","author":"Caslin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roerecke, M. (2021). Alcohol\u2019s impact on the cardiovascular system. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13103419"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"8","article-title":"Individual susceptibility and alcohol effects: Biochemical and genetic aspects","volume":"42","author":"Gemma","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ann. Ist. Super. Sanita"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Day, A.W., and Kumamoto, C.A. (2022). Gut microbiome dysbiosis in alcoholism: Consequences for health and recovery. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.840164"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dedon, L.R., Yuan, H., Chi, J., Gu, H., Arias, A.J., Covault, J.M., and Zhou, Y. (2025). Baseline gut microbiome and metabolites are correlated with changes in alcohol consumption in participants in a randomized Zonisamide clinical trial. Sci. Rep., 15.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-92313-0"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"878","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.14383","article-title":"Gut microbiota compositional and functional fingerprint in patients with alcohol use disorder and alcohol-associated liver disease","volume":"40","author":"Addolorato","year":"2020","journal-title":"Liver Int."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1608","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2020.1758010","article-title":"Longitudinal gut microbiome changes in alcohol use disorder are influenced by abstinence and drinking quantity","volume":"11","author":"Ames","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2019.1580097","article-title":"Characterization of gut microbiota composition and functions in patients with chronic alcohol overconsumption","volume":"10","author":"Aanes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1080\/00952990.2019.1669629","article-title":"Changes in the composition of the human intestinal microbiome in alcohol use disorder: A systematic review","volume":"46","author":"Litwinowicz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abus."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Du, Y., Li, L., Gong, C., Li, T., and Xia, Y. (2022). The diversity of the intestinal microbiota in patients with alcohol use disorder and its relationship to alcohol consumption and cognition. Front. Psychiatry, 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.1054685"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baltazar-D\u00edaz, T.A., Gonz\u00e1lez-Hern\u00e1ndez, L.A., Aldana-Ledesma, J.M., Pe\u00f1a-Rodr\u00edguez, M., Vega-Maga\u00f1a, A.N., Zepeda-Morales, A.S.M., L\u00f3pez-Roa, R.I., Del Toro-Arreola, S., Mart\u00ednez-L\u00f3pez, E., and Salazar-Montes, A.M. (2022). Escherichia\/Shigella, SCFAs, and metabolic pathways\u2014The triad that orchestrates intestinal dysbiosis in patients with decompensated alcoholic cirrhosis from Western Mexico. Microorganisms, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10061231"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, G., Shi, F., Yin, W., Guo, Y., Liu, A., Shuai, J., and Sun, J. (2022). Gut microbiota dysbiosis: The potential mechanisms by which alcohol disrupts gut and brain functions. Front. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.916765"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pohl, K., Moodley, P., and Dhanda, A.D. (2021). Alcohol\u2019s impact on the gut and liver. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13093170"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11904","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v21.i42.11904","article-title":"Immune dysfunction in acute alcoholic hepatitis","volume":"21","author":"Dhanda","year":"2015","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2014.02.003","article-title":"Role of inflammatory pathways, blood mononuclear cells, and gut-derived bacterial products in alcohol dependence","volume":"76","author":"Leclercq","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1038\/s41571-018-0006-2","article-title":"The gut microbiota influences anticancer immunosurveillance and general health","volume":"15","author":"Routy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, M., Lee, S.T., Choi, S., Lee, H., Kwon, S.S., Byun, J.H., Kim, Y.A., Rhee, K.J., Choi, J.R., and Kim, T.I. (2020). Fusobacterium nucleatum in biopsied tissues from colorectal cancer patients and alcohol consumption in Korea. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-76467-7"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1960","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2002496","article-title":"Drug-resistant bacteremia after fecal microbiota transplant","volume":"382","author":"Bleibtreu","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e09899","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2022.e09899","article-title":"Cognitive impairment in the co-occurrence of alcohol dependence and major depression: Neuropsychological assessment and event-related potentials analyses","volume":"8","year":"2022","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pich, E.M., Tarnanas, I., Brigidi, P., and Collo, G. (2025). Gut microbiome-liver-brain axis in alcohol use disorder. The role of gut dysbiosis and stress in alcohol-related cognitive impairment progression: Possible therapeutic approaches. Neurobiol. Stress, 35.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ynstr.2025.100713"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1134","DOI":"10.1007\/s12094-021-02754-y","article-title":"Characterization of the fecal microbiota in gastrointestinal cancer patients and healthy people","volume":"24","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1042\/CS20171055","article-title":"Intestinal dysbiosis and permeability: The yin and yang in alcohol dependence and alcoholic liver disease","volume":"132","author":"Leclercq","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2017.06.021","article-title":"Infant gut microbiome associated with cognitive development","volume":"83","author":"Carlson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1432","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.13431","article-title":"Executive functions, memory, and social cognitive deficits and recovery in chronic alcoholism: A critical review to inform future research","volume":"41","author":"Fama","year":"2017","journal-title":"Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1098","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-020-00970-6","article-title":"A biological framework for emotional dysregulation in alcohol misuse: From gut to brain","volume":"26","author":"Carbia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E4485","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1415174111","article-title":"Intestinal permeability, gut-bacterial dysbiosis, and behavioral markers of alcohol-dependence severity","volume":"111","author":"Leclercq","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ling, Z., Zhu, M., Yan, X., Cheng, Y., Shao, L., Liu, X., Jiang, R., and Wu, S. (2021). Structural and functional dysbiosis of fecal microbiota in Chinese patients with Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2020.634069"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-018-0337-x","article-title":"The neuroactive potential of the human gut microbiota in quality of life and depression","volume":"4","author":"Falony","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cort\u00e9s-Tom\u00e1s, M.T., Gim\u00e9nez-Costa, J.A., Mart\u00edn-Del-R\u00edo, B., G\u00f3mez-\u00cd\u00f1iguez, C., and Solanes-Puchol, \u00c1. (2021). Binge drinking: The top 100 cited papers. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18179203"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107888","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2020.107888","article-title":"Emotional memory bias in binge drinking women","volume":"209","author":"Carbia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1978","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.14151","article-title":"Disrupted fear and sadness recognition in binge drinking: A combined group and Individual analysis","volume":"43","author":"Lannoy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2019.106187","article-title":"Disentangling the role of social cognition processes at early steps of alcohol abuse: The influence of affective theory of mind","volume":"102","author":"Lannoy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Addict. Behav."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101971","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2021.101971","article-title":"Emotional processes in binge drinking: A systematic review and perspective","volume":"84","author":"Lannoy","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/s13011-025-00641-1","article-title":"Global scientific research landscape on binge drinking: A comprehensive bibliometric and visualization analysis of trends, collaborations, and future directions","volume":"20","author":"Zyoud","year":"2025","journal-title":"Subst. Abus. Treat. Prev. Policy"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carbia, C., Bastiaanssen, T.F.S., Iannone, L.F., Garc\u00eda-Cabrerizo, R., Boscaini, S., Berding, K., Strain, C.R., Clarke, G., Stanton, C., and Dinan, T.G. (2023). The microbiome-gut-brain axis regulates social cognition and craving in young binge drinkers. EBioMedicine, 89.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2023.104442"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1953247","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2021.1953247","article-title":"Distinct gut microbial compositional and functional changes associated with impaired inhibitory control in patients with cirrhosis","volume":"13","author":"Bajaj","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parker, B.J., Wearsch, P.A., Veloo, A.C.M., and Rodriguez-Palacios, A. (2020). The genus Alistipes: Gut bacteria with emerging implications to inflammation, cancer, and mental health. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00906"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-022-01920-2","article-title":"Gut microbiota and voluntary alcohol consumption","volume":"12","author":"Albert","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shao, L., Ling, Z., Chen, D., Liu, Y., Yang, F., and Li, L. (2018). Disorganized gut microbiome contributed to liver cirrhosis progression: A meta-omics-based study. Front. Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.03166"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2018.12.118","article-title":"A multi-dimensional evaluation of craving and impulsivity among people admitted for alcohol-related problems in emergency department","volume":"272","author":"Flaudias","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e05868","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2020.e05868","article-title":"Drawing alcohol craving process: A systematic review of its association with thought suppression, inhibition and impulsivity","volume":"7","author":"Bernard","year":"2021","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2017.0135","article-title":"Association of stimulant use with dopaminergic alterations in users of cocaine, amphetamine, or methamphetamine: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"74","author":"Ashok","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113754","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2021.113754","article-title":"Brief history of the medical and non-medical use of amphetamine-like psychostimulants","volume":"342","author":"Morelli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1007\/7854_2017_5","article-title":"Discriminative stimulus effects of psychostimulants","volume":"39","author":"Berquist","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2065","DOI":"10.1111\/add.14708","article-title":"Psychostimulant use and the brain","volume":"114","author":"Lappin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.irn.2015.02.008","article-title":"Psychostimulants: Basic and clinical pharmacology","volume":"120","author":"McCreary","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1080\/13510002.2022.2043224","article-title":"Psychostimulants influence oxidative stress and redox signatures: The role of DNA methylation","volume":"27","author":"Sundar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Redox Rep."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.15288\/jsad.2014.75.347","article-title":"Associations of cocaine use and HIV infection with the intestinal microbiota, microbial translocation, and inflammation","volume":"75","author":"Volpe","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Stud. Alcohol Drugs"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cook, R.R., Fulcher, J.A., Tobin, N.H., Li, F., Lee, D.J., Woodward, C., Javanbakht, M., Brookmeyer, R., Shoptaw, S., and Bolan, R. (2019). Alterations to the gastrointestinal microbiome associated with methamphetamine use among young men who have sex with men. Sci. Rep., 9.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-51142-8"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deng, D., Su, H., Song, Y., Chen, T., Sun, Q., Jiang, H., and Zhao, M. (2021). Altered fecal microbiota correlated with systemic inflammation in male subjects with methamphetamine use disorder. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.783917"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-021-03513-9","article-title":"The crosstalk between neurons and glia in methamphetamine-induced neuroinflammation","volume":"47","author":"Shi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurochem. Res."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Y., Yu, X., Liu, X., Liu, G., Zeng, K., and Wang, G. (2021). Altered fecal microbiota composition in individuals who abuse methamphetamine. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.706961"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, L., Yang, B.Z., Ma, Y.J., Wen, L., Liu, F., Zhang, X.J., and Liu, T.Q. (2023). Differences in clinical features and gut microbiota between individuals with methamphetamine casual use and methamphetamine use disorder. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2023.1103919"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106627","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2023.106627","article-title":"Oral and fecal microbiota perturbance in cocaine users: Can rTMS-induced cocaine abstinence support eubiosis restoration?","volume":"26","author":"Gerace","year":"2023","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1007\/s00430-018-0542-5","article-title":"Gut microbiome of Moroccan colorectal cancer patients","volume":"207","author":"Allali","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1097\/TA.0000000000001855","article-title":"Nonocclusive mesenteric ischemia in patients with methamphetamine use","volume":"84","author":"Anderson","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Trauma Acute Care Surg."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Magro, D.O., Santos, A., Guadagnini, D., Moreira de Godoy, F., Monteiro-Silva, S.H., Fernandes-Lemos, W.J., Vitulo, N., Torriani, S., Pinheiro, L.V., and Martinez, C.A.R. (2019). Remission in Crohn\u2019s disease is accompanied by alterations in the gut microbiota and mucins production. Sci. Rep., 9.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-49893-5"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kiraly, D.D., Walker, D.M., Calipari, E.S., Labonte, B., Issler, O., Pena, C.J., Ribeiro, E.A., Russo, S.J., and Nestler, E.J. (2016). Alterations of the host microbiome affect behavioral responses to cocaine. Sci. Rep., 6.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep35455"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-023-01661-w","article-title":"Microbial short-chain fatty acids regulate drug seeking and transcriptional control in a model of cocaine seeking","volume":"49","author":"Meckel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2413","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-019-05276-2","article-title":"Gender differences in the behavioral and subjective effects of methamphetamine in healthy humans","volume":"236","author":"Mayo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Sun, Y., Yu, Z., Sun, Y., Chang, X., Lu, L., Chang, S., and Shi, J. (2020). Risk factors and an early prediction model for persistent methamphetamine-related psychiatric symptoms. Addict. Biol., 25.","DOI":"10.1111\/adb.12709"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1522","DOI":"10.1111\/add.14170","article-title":"Methamphetamine psychosis: Insights from the past","volume":"113","author":"McKetin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1124\/jpet.116.238501","article-title":"Molecular, behavioral, and physiological consequences of methamphetamine neurotoxicity: Implications for treatment","volume":"362","author":"Moszczynska","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wearne, T.A., and Cornish, J.L. (2018). A comparison of methamphetamine-induced psychosis and schizophrenia: A review of positive, negative, and cognitive symptomatology. Front. Psychiatry, 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2018.00491"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1111\/ijpp.12446","article-title":"Global use and misuse of opioids","volume":"26","author":"Fincham","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm. Pract."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mazzeo, F., Meccariello, R., and Guatteo, E. (2023). Molecular and epigenetic aspects of opioid receptors in drug addiction and pain management in sport. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24097831"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1080\/13543784.2018.1516204","article-title":"New concepts in opioid analgesia","volume":"27","author":"Stein","year":"2018","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Investig. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S3","DOI":"10.1097\/00002508-200207001-00002","article-title":"Clinical pharmacology of opioids for pain","volume":"18","author":"Inturrisi","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. J. Pain"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S105","DOI":"10.36076\/ppj.2008\/11\/S105","article-title":"Opioid complications and side effects","volume":"11","author":"Benyamin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pain Physician"},{"key":"ref_112","first-page":"23","article-title":"A holistic review of fentanyl use and its impact on public health","volume":"8","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Addict. Res."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Faouzi, A., Varga, B.R., and Majumdar, S. (2020). Biased opioid ligands. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25184257"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1097\/FBP.0000000000000538","article-title":"The role of the gut microbiome in opioid use","volume":"31","author":"Ren","year":"2020","journal-title":"Behav. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-021-10046-z","article-title":"Opioid use, gut dysbiosis, inflammation, and the nervous system","volume":"17","author":"Jalodia","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pan, R., Wang, L., Xu, X., Chen, Y., Wang, H., Wang, G., Zhao, J., and Chen, W. (2022). Crosstalk between the gut microbiome and colonic motility in chronic constipation: Potential mechanisms and microbiota modulation. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14183704"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104928","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2020.104928","article-title":"Opioid system influences gut-brain axis: Dysbiosis and related alterations","volume":"159","author":"Cruz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2023.111142","article-title":"The bidirectional relationship between opioids and the gut microbiome: Implications for opioid tolerance and clinical interventions","volume":"125","author":"Taboun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vincent, C., Miller, M.A., Edens, T., Mehrotra, S., Dewar, K., and Manges, A.R. (2016). Bloom and bust: Intestinal microbiota dynamics in response to hospital exposures and Clostridium difficile colonization or infection. Microbiome, 4.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-016-0156-3"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.13858","article-title":"Chronic opioid use is associated with altered gut microbiota and predicts readmissions in patients with cirrhosis","volume":"45","author":"Acharya","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barengolts, E., Green, S.J., Eisenberg, Y., Akbar, A., Reddivari, B., Layden, B.T., Dugas, L., and Chlipala, G. (2018). Gut microbiota varies by opioid use, circulating leptin and oxytocin in African American men with diabetes and high burden of chronic disease. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0194171"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10311","DOI":"10.3389\/adar.2022.10311","article-title":"Gut-microbiome implications in opioid use disorder and related behaviors","volume":"2","author":"Herlihy","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Alcohol Res."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, F., Meng, J., Zhang, L., Johnson, T., Chen, C., and Roy, S. (2018). Morphine induces changes in the gut microbiome and metabolome in a morphine dependence model. Sci. Rep., 8.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-21915-8"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bajaj, J.S., Betrapally, N.S., Hylemon, P.B., Thacker, L.R., Daita, K., Kang, D.J., White, M.B., Unser, A.B., Fagan, A., and Gavis, E.A. (2016). Gut microbiota alterations can predict hospitalizations in cirrhosis independent of diabetes mellitus. Sci. Rep., 6.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep20447"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meng, J., Banerjee, S., Li, D., Sindberg, G.M., Wang, F., Ma, J., and Roy, S. (2015). Opioid exacerbation of Gram-positive sepsis, induced by gut microbial modulation, is rescued by IL-17A neutralization. Sci. Rep., 5.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep10918"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, R., Meng, J., Lian, Q., Chen, X., Bauman, B., Chu, H., Segura, B., and Roy, S. (2018). Prescription opioids are associated with higher mortality in patients diagnosed with sepsis: A retrospective cohort study using electronic health records. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0190362"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Franchi, S., Moschetti, G., Amodeo, G., and Sacerdote, P. (2019). Do all opioid drugs share the same immunomodulatory properties? A review from animal and human studies. Front. Immunol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.02914"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meijerink, H., Indrati, A., Utami, F., Soedarmo, S., Alisjahbana, B., Netea, M.G., van Crevel, R., Wisaksana, R., and van der Ven, A.J. (2015). Heroin use is associated with suppressed pro-inflammatory cytokine response after LPS exposure in HIV-infected individuals. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0122822"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1177\/0192623316679898","article-title":"Gut homeostasis, microbial dysbiosis, and opioids","volume":"45","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Toxicol. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1018","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.4397","article-title":"Microglia emerge as central players in brain disease","volume":"23","author":"Salter","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-45541-9_1","article-title":"Phytochemistry of Cannabis sativa L.","volume":"Volume 103","author":"ElSohly","year":"2017","journal-title":"Phytocannabinoids: Unraveling the Complex Chemistry and Pharmacology of Cannabis sativa"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Srivastava, R.K., Lutz, B., and Ruiz de Azua, I. (2022). The microbiome and gut endocannabinoid system in the regulation of stress responses and metabolism. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2022.867267"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andre, C.M., Hausman, J.F., and Guerriero, G. (2016). Cannabis sativa: The plant of the thousand and one molecules. Front. Plant Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2016.00019"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1665","DOI":"10.1007\/s40265-018-0996-1","article-title":"Medical use of cannabinoids","volume":"78","year":"2018","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1159\/000521683","article-title":"Therapeutic potential of cannabis, cannabidiol, and cannabinoid-based pharmaceuticals","volume":"107","author":"Legare","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pharmacology"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1089\/can.2018.0073","article-title":"Immune responses regulated by cannabidiol","volume":"5","author":"Nichols","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cannabis Cannabinoid Res."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1894","DOI":"10.14309\/ajg.0000000000000441","article-title":"Relationship between recreational marijuana use and bowel function in a nationwide cohort study","volume":"114","author":"Adejumo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tartakover-Matalon, S., Azar, S., Meiri, D., Hadar, R., Nemirovski, A., Abu Jabal, N., Konikoff, F.M., Drucker, L., Tam, J., and Naftali, T. (2021). Endocannabinoid levels in ulcerative colitis patients correlate with clinical parameters and are affected by cannabis consumption. Front. Endocrinol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2021.685289"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.9758\/cpn.2017.15.3.237","article-title":"Evaluation of oxidant\/antioxidant status and cytokine levels in patients with cannabis use disorder","volume":"15","author":"Bayazit","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Psychopharmacol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-021-00247-4","article-title":"Cannabis use and cannabis use disorder","volume":"7","author":"Connor","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rea, K., O\u2019 Mahony, S.M., and Cryan, J.F. (2021). High and mighty? Cannabinoids and the microbiome in pain. Neurobiol. Pain, 9.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ynpai.2021.100061"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ibrahim, I., Syamala, S., Ayariga, J.A., Xu, J., Robertson, B.K., Meenakshisundaram, S., and Ajayi, O.S. (2022). Modulatory effect of gut microbiota on the gut-brain, gut-bone axes, and the impact of cannabinoids. Metabolites, 12.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202210.0465.v1"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2015.211","article-title":"Endocannabinoids\u2014At the crossroads between the gut microbiota and host metabolism","volume":"12","author":"Cani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmgh.2022.05.015","article-title":"Role of the endocannabinoid system in the regulation of intestinal homeostasis","volume":"14","author":"Cuddihey","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R83","DOI":"10.1530\/JOE-20-0444","article-title":"The gut microbiome, endocannabinoids and metabolic disorders","volume":"248","author":"Iannotti","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2016.04.015","article-title":"The role of the endocannabinoid system in the brain-gut axis","volume":"151","author":"Sharkey","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-019-0284-z","article-title":"Cannabinoids and the expanded endocannabinoid system in neurological disorders","volume":"16","author":"Cristino","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_148","first-page":"607","article-title":"Review of the endocannabinoid system","volume":"6","author":"Lu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry Cogn. Neurosci. Neuroimaging"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X14666160303110150","article-title":"Role of cannabinoids in gastrointestinal mucosal defense and inflammation","volume":"14","author":"Gyires","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crowley, K., Kiraga, \u0141., Miszczuk, E., Skiba, S., Banach, J., Latek, U., Mendel, M., and Ch\u0142opecka, M. (2024). Effects of cannabinoids on intestinal motility, barrier permeability, and therapeutic potential in gastrointestinal diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25126682"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Komorowska-M\u00fcller, J.A., and Schm\u00f6le, A.C. (2020). CB2 receptor in microglia: The guardian of self-control. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22010019"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bjp.0707486","article-title":"Cannabinoid CB2 receptors in the gastrointestinal tract: A regulatory system in states of inflammation","volume":"153","author":"Wright","year":"2008","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mehrpouya-Bahrami, P., Chitrala, K.N., Ganewatta, M.S., Tang, C., Murphy, E.A., Enos, R.T., Velazquez, K.T., McCellan, J., Nagarkatti, M., and Nagarkatti, P. (2017). Blockade of CB1 cannabinoid receptor alters gut microbiota and attenuates inflammation and diet-induced obesity. Sci. Rep., 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-15154-6"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-017-9767-0","article-title":"Associations between microbiota, mitochondrial function, and cognition in chronic marijuana users","volume":"13","author":"Panee","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castonguay-Paradis, S., Lacroix, S., Rochefort, G., Parent, L., Perron, J., Martin, C., Lamarche, B., Raymond, F., Flamand, N., and Di Marzo, V. (2020). Dietary fatty acid intake and gut microbiota determine circulating endocannabinoidome signaling beyond the effect of body fat. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-72861-3"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1997559","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2021.1997559","article-title":"The anti-inflammatory effect of bacterial short chain fatty acids is partially mediated by endocannabinoids","volume":"13","author":"Vijay","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1128","DOI":"10.1111\/add.15703","article-title":"Tobacco use disorder and cardiovascular health","volume":"117","author":"Benowitz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.5334\/gh.1292","article-title":"Nicotine and cardiovascular health: When poison is addictive\u2014A WHF policy brief","volume":"19","author":"Dorotheo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Glob. Heart"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pop.2010.11.003","article-title":"Nicotine dependence: Health consequences, smoking cessation therapies, and pharmacotherapy","volume":"38","author":"Grief","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prim. Care"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1980","DOI":"10.1253\/circj.CJ-19-0323","article-title":"Effects of tobacco smoking on cardiovascular disease","volume":"83","author":"Kondo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circ. J."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.pharmtox.48.113006.094742","article-title":"Pharmacology of nicotine: Addiction, smoking-induced disease, and therapeutics","volume":"49","author":"Benowitz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1037\/pha0000208","article-title":"A review of the effects of nicotine on social functioning","volume":"26","author":"Martin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X15666171103152136","article-title":"Cognitive effects of nicotine: Recent progress","volume":"16","author":"Valentine","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2020.108256","article-title":"Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and nicotine addiction: A brief introduction","volume":"177","author":"Wittenberg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1111\/dar.13800","article-title":"Cannabis vaporisation: Understanding products, devices and risks","volume":"43","author":"MacCallum","year":"2024","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Rev."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaay9763","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aay9763","article-title":"Current advances in research in treatment and recovery: Nicotine addiction","volume":"5","author":"Prochaska","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1007\/s00203-018-1506-2","article-title":"Smoking and the intestinal microbiome","volume":"200","author":"Savin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berkowitz, L., Schultz, B.M., Salazar, G.A., Pardo-Roa, C., Sebasti\u00e1n, V.P., \u00c1lvarez-Lobos, M.M., and Bueno, S.M. (2018). Impact of cigarette smoking on the gastrointestinal tract inflammation: Opposing effects in Crohn\u2019s disease and ulcerative colitis. Front. Immunol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.00074"},{"key":"ref_169","first-page":"617","article-title":"Smoking and liver disease","volume":"16","author":"Rutledge","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1159\/000523668","article-title":"Tobacco smoking and gastrointestinal cancer risk","volume":"38","year":"2022","journal-title":"Visc. Med."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S38","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.201306-154MG","article-title":"Cigarette smoke effects on innate immune mechanisms in the nasal mucosa. Potential effects on the microbiome","volume":"11","author":"Jaspers","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2110","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrestox.7b00162","article-title":"Nicotine alters the gut microbiome and metabolites of gut-brain interactions in a sex-specific manner","volume":"30","author":"Chi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Res. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biedermann, L., Zeitz, J., Mwinyi, J., Sutter-Minder, E., Rehman, A., Ott, S.J., Steurer-Stey, C., Frei, A., Frei, P., and Scharl, M. (2013). Smoking cessation induces profound changes in the composition of the intestinal microbiota in humans. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0059260"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1007\/s10552-015-0535-2","article-title":"Association between tobacco use and the upper gastrointestinal microbiome among Chinese men","volume":"26","author":"Vogtmann","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cancer Causes Control"},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2070","DOI":"10.1097\/MIB.0000000000000875","article-title":"Gut microbial diversity is reduced in smokers with Crohn\u2019s disease","volume":"22","author":"Opstelten","year":"2016","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1093\/ecco-jcc\/jjw136","article-title":"Microbial factors associated with postoperative Crohn\u2019s disease recurrence","volume":"11","author":"Wright","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Crohns Colitis"},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, S.H., Yun, Y., Kim, S.J., Lee, E.J., Chang, Y., Ryu, S., Shin, H., Kim, H.L., Kim, H.N., and Lee, J.H. (2018). Association between cigarette smoking status and composition of gut microbiota: Population-based cross-sectional study. J. Clin. Med., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm7090282"},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shanahan, E.R., Shah, A., Koloski, N., Walker, M.M., Talley, N.J., Morrison, M., and Holtmann, G.J. (2018). Influence of cigarette smoking on the human duodenal mucosa-associated microbiota. Microbiome, 6.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-018-0531-3"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e4693","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.4693","article-title":"Effects of tobacco smoke and electronic cigarette vapor exposure on the oral and gut microbiota in humans: A pilot study","volume":"6","author":"Stewart","year":"2018","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntz220","article-title":"The association between smoking and gut microbiome in Bangladesh","volume":"22","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob. Res."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"926","DOI":"10.1007\/s12275-020-0006-7","article-title":"The effects of cigarettes and alcohol on intestinal microbiota in healthy men","volume":"58","author":"Lin","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Antinozzi, M., Giffi, M., Sini, N., Gall\u00e8, F., Valeriani, F., De Vito, C., Liguori, G., Romano Spica, V., and Cattaruzza, M.S. (2022). Cigarette smoking and human gut microbiota in healthy adults: A systematic review. Biomedicines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines10020510"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5391","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-017-8282-9","article-title":"Smokeless tobacco products harbor diverse bacterial microbiota that differ across products and brands","volume":"101","author":"Smyth","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.0901201","article-title":"Human pathogens abundant in the bacterial metagenome of cigarettes","volume":"118","author":"Sapkota","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-019-0157-3","article-title":"The role of short-chain fatty acids in microbiota-gut-brain communication","volume":"16","author":"Dalile","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.10.020","article-title":"Linking the human gut microbiome to inflammatory cytokine production capacity","volume":"167","author":"Schirmer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, Y.P., Bernardi, A., and Frozza, R.L. (2020). The role of short-chain fatty acids from gut microbiota in gut-brain communication. Front. Endocrinol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2020.00025"},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108511","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2021.108511","article-title":"Chemokines, cytokines and substance use disorders","volume":"220","author":"Ahearn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.4110\/in.2014.14.6.277","article-title":"Gut microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids, T cells, and inflammation","volume":"14","author":"Kim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Immune Netw."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10867","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1821-17.2017","article-title":"Circuit and synaptic plasticity mechanisms of drug relapse","volume":"37","author":"Dong","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-017-01881-x","article-title":"Granulocyte-colony stimulating factor controls neural and behavioral plasticity in response to cocaine","volume":"9","author":"Calipari","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2017.04.013","article-title":"A role for the peripheral immune system in the development of alcohol use disorders?","volume":"122","author":"Delzenne","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borrego-Ruiz, A., and Borrego, J.J. (2024). Epigenetic mechanisms in aging: Extrinsic factors and gut microbiome. Genes, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes15121599"},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1700-7","article-title":"Alcohol metabolism contributes to brain histone acetylation","volume":"574","author":"Mews","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e72171","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.72171","article-title":"Short-chain fatty acids activate acetyltransferase p300","volume":"10","author":"Thomas","year":"2021","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-64076-5.00048-X","article-title":"Neuroepigenetics and addiction","volume":"148","author":"Walker","year":"2018","journal-title":"Handb. Clin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-051116-052358","article-title":"Microglia function in the central nervous system during health and neurodegeneration","volume":"35","author":"Colonna","year":"2017","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103838","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mcn.2023.103838","article-title":"Transcriptional and epigenetic regulation of microglia in substance use disorders","volume":"125","author":"Vilca","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1178646919852996","DOI":"10.1177\/1178646919852996","article-title":"Microorganisms, tryptophan metabolism, and kynurenine pathway: A complex interconnected loop influencing human health status","volume":"12","author":"Dehhaghi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Tryptophan Res."},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-021-01610-5","article-title":"Alterations of kynurenine pathway in alcohol use disorder and abstinence: A link with gut microbiota, peripheral inflammation and psychological symptoms","volume":"11","author":"Leclercq","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107807","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2021.107807","article-title":"Addiction and the kynurenine pathway: A new dancing couple?","volume":"223","author":"Vidal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_202","first-page":"s15","article-title":"The role of the gut microbiota in bile acid metabolism","volume":"16","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pavlovi\u0107, N., Golo\u010dorbin-Kon, S., \u00d0ani\u0107, M., Stanimirov, B., Al-Salami, H., Stankov, K., and Mikov, M. (2018). Bile acids and their derivatives as potential modifiers of drug release and pharmacokinetic profiles. Front. Pharmacol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2018.01283"},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1097\/MOG.0000000000000057","article-title":"Bile acids and the gut microbiome","volume":"30","author":"Ridlon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2359","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.25518","article-title":"Neurotransmitters: The critical modulators regulating gut-brain axis","volume":"232","author":"Mittal","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Cell. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gtc.2016.09.007","article-title":"The microbiome-gut-brain axis in health and disease","volume":"46","author":"Dinan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gastroenterol. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1093\/alcalc\/34.2.244","article-title":"The role of serotonin in craving: From basic research to human studies","volume":"34","author":"Ciccocioppo","year":"1999","journal-title":"Alcohol Alcohol."},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2014.04.007","article-title":"The role of serotonin in drug use and addiction","volume":"277","author":"Homberg","year":"2015","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2115","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00014.2018","article-title":"The neuroscience of drug reward and addiction","volume":"99","author":"Volkow","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hamamah, S., Aghazarian, A., Nazaryan, A., Hajnal, A., and Covasa, M. (2022). Role of microbiota-gut-brain axis in regulating dopaminergic signaling. Biomedicines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines10020436"},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borrego-Ruiz, A., and Borrego, J.J. (2025). Pharmacogenomic and pharmacomicrobiomic aspects of drugs of abuse. Genes, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes16040403"},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1291-3","article-title":"Mapping human microbiome drug metabolism by gut bacteria and their genes","volume":"570","author":"Zimmermann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2016.09.002","article-title":"Psychobiotics and the manipulation of bacteria-gut-brain signals","volume":"39","author":"Sarkar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mansuy-Aubert, V., and Ravussin, Y. (2023). Short chain fatty acids: The messengers from down below. Front. Neurosci., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2023.1197759"},{"key":"ref_215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1487","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00018.2022","article-title":"The enteric nervous system","volume":"103","author":"Sharkey","year":"2023","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_216","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2022.07.015","article-title":"Enteric nervous system and intestinal epithelial regulation of the gut-brain axis","volume":"150","author":"Dowling","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_217","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1486","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2020.10.066","article-title":"The microbiota-gut-brain axis: From motility to mood","volume":"160","author":"Margolis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_218","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghosh, M., and Pearse, D.D. (2024). The Yin and Yang of microglia-derived extracellular vesicles in CNS injury and diseases. Cells, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells13221834"},{"key":"ref_219","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Casali, B.T., and Reed-Geaghan, E.G. (2021). Microglial function and regulation during development, homeostasis and Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10040957"},{"key":"ref_220","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Wang, Z., Wang, Y., Li, F., Jia, J., Song, X., Qin, S., Wang, R., Jin, F., and Kitazato, K. (2018). The gut-microglia connection: Implications for central nervous system diseases. Front. Immunol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.02325"},{"key":"ref_221","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13599","DOI":"10.1111\/acel.13599","article-title":"Microbiota-microglia connections in age-related cognition decline","volume":"21","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Aging Cell"},{"key":"ref_222","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Antoine, D., Venigalla, G., Truitt, B., and Roy, S. (2022). Linking the gut microbiome to microglial activation in opioid use disorder. Front. Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2022.1050661"},{"key":"ref_223","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kasarello, K., Cudnoch-Jedrzejewska, A., and Czarzasta, K. (2023). Communication of gut microbiota and brain via immune and neuroendocrine signaling. Front. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2023.1118529"},{"key":"ref_224","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Subedi, L., Huang, H., Pant, A., Westgate, P.M., Bada, H.S., Bauer, J.A., Giannone, P.J., and Sithisarn, T. (2017). Plasma brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels in newborn infants with neonatal abstinence syndrome. Front. Pediatr., 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2017.00238"},{"key":"ref_225","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1515\/revneuro-2016-0078","article-title":"Peripheral levels of BDNF and opiate-use disorder: Literature review and update","volume":"28","author":"Roncero","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_226","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.3390\/stresses2010011","article-title":"The role of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in test-induced anxiety: Assessments, physiological responses, and molecular details","volume":"2","author":"Hinds","year":"2022","journal-title":"Stresses"},{"key":"ref_227","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rusch, J.A., Layden, B.T., and Dugas, L.R. (2023). Signalling cognition: The gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Front. Endocrinol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2023.1130689"},{"key":"ref_228","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-020-01180-y","article-title":"Effects of cortisol administration on craving during in vivo exposure in patients with alcohol use disorder","volume":"11","author":"Soravia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_229","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2019.06.020","article-title":"Medication treatment of opioid use disorder","volume":"87","author":"Bell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_230","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.1080\/14656566.2017.1349098","article-title":"Pharmacotherapy of alcoholism\u2014An update on approved and off-label medications","volume":"18","author":"Soyka","year":"2017","journal-title":"Expert. Opin. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_231","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaax4043","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aax4043","article-title":"Advances in the science and treatment of alcohol use disorder","volume":"5","author":"Witkiewitz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_232","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2017.212","article-title":"The current state of pharmacological treatments for cannabis use disorder and withdrawal","volume":"43","author":"Brezing","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_233","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaax1532","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aax1532","article-title":"The treatment of cocaine use disorder","volume":"5","author":"Kampman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_234","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1517\/14728214.2015.985203","article-title":"Emerging drugs for the treatment of cocaine use disorder: A review of neurobiological targets and pharmacotherapy","volume":"20","author":"Shorter","year":"2015","journal-title":"Expert. Opin. Emerg. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_235","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.114289","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis of the efficacy of the long-term treatment and support of substance use disorders","volume":"285","author":"Beaulieu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_236","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2018.09.013","article-title":"Neuromodulation for substance addiction in human subjects: A review","volume":"95","author":"Bari","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_237","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(16)00104-8","article-title":"Neurobiology of addiction: A neurocircuitry analysis","volume":"3","author":"Koob","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_238","first-page":"A58","article-title":"Exploring the potential role of probiotics in substance use disorders","volume":"71","author":"Letchumanan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_239","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1186\/s13011-021-00371-0","article-title":"A review of research-supported group treatments for drug use disorders","volume":"16","author":"Orchowski","year":"2021","journal-title":"Subst. Abus. Treat. Prev. Policy"},{"key":"ref_240","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, S.C., Chen, Y.C., Chen, S.J., Lee, C.H., and Cheng, C.M. (2020). Alcohol addiction, gut microbiota, and alcoholism treatment: A review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21176413"},{"key":"ref_241","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1112","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2012-303304","article-title":"Insight into the prebiotic concept: Lessons from an exploratory, double blind intervention study with inulin-type fructans in obese women","volume":"62","author":"Dewulf","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_242","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1688","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.31496","article-title":"A randomized clinical trial of fecal microbiota transplant for alcohol use disorder","volume":"73","author":"Bajaj","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_243","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2007042","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2021.2007042","article-title":"Restoring an adequate dietary fiber intake by inulin supplementation: A pilot study showing an impact on gut microbiota and sociability in alcohol use disorder patients","volume":"14","author":"Amadieu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_244","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)32812-X","article-title":"Comparative effectiveness of extended-release naltrexone versus buprenorphine-naloxone for opioid relapse prevention (X:BOT): A multicentre, open-label, randomised controlled trial","volume":"391","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_245","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1093\/alcalc\/agw038","article-title":"Reductions in alcohol craving following naltrexone treatment for heavy drinking","volume":"51","author":"Helstrom","year":"2016","journal-title":"Alcohol Alcohol."},{"key":"ref_246","first-page":"49","article-title":"Methylnaltrexone in the treatment of opioid-induced constipation","volume":"1","author":"Standifer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_247","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1756284819856865","DOI":"10.1177\/1756284819856865","article-title":"Targeting mucosal healing in Crohn\u2019s disease: What the clinician needs to know","volume":"12","author":"Klenske","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_248","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gicquelais, R.E., Bohnert, A.S.B., Thomas, L., and Foxman, B. (2020). Opioid agonist and antagonist use and the gut microbiota: Associations among people in addiction treatment. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-76570-9"},{"key":"ref_249","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barkus, A., Baltr\u016bnien\u0117, V., Bau\u0161ien\u0117, J., Baltr\u016bnas, T., Barkien\u0117, L., Kazlauskait\u0117, P., and Bau\u0161ys, A. (2024). The gut-brain axis in opioid use disorder: Exploring the bidirectional influence of opioids and the gut microbiome\u2014A comprehensive review. Life, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/life14101227"},{"key":"ref_250","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"EENEURO.0388-23.2023","DOI":"10.1523\/ENEURO.0388-23.2023","article-title":"Microbiome depletion increases fentanyl self-administration and alters the striatal proteome through short-chain fatty acids","volume":"11","author":"Hofford","year":"2024","journal-title":"eNeuro"},{"key":"ref_251","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.21073","article-title":"Substance use disorders: A comprehensive update of classification, epidemiology, neurobiology, clinical aspects, treatment and prevention","volume":"22","author":"Volkow","year":"2023","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_252","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gong, Z., Xue, Q., Luo, Y., Yu, B., Hua, B., and Liu, Z. (2024). The interplay between the microbiota and opioid in the treatment of neuropathic pain. Front. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1390046"},{"key":"ref_253","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1007\/s11916-016-0561-0","article-title":"Pain control in the presence of drug addiction","volume":"20","author":"Vadivelu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Pain Headache Rep."},{"key":"ref_254","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-017-0525-z","article-title":"Reward circuitry in addiction","volume":"14","author":"Cooper","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"ref_255","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.5114\/ain.2024.149307","article-title":"A current overview on adolescent alcohol misuse and its potential negative impacts","volume":"37","year":"2024","journal-title":"Alcohol. Drug Addict.\/Alkohol. Narkom."},{"key":"ref_256","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.3390\/nu4070759","article-title":"Wine, Beer, Alcohol and Polyphenols on Cardiovascular Disease and Cancer","volume":"4","author":"Arranz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_257","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pagano, C., Navarra, G., Coppola, L., Avilia, G., Bifulco, M., and Laezza, C. (2022). Cannabinoids: Therapeutic Use in Clinical Practice. Int J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23063344"},{"key":"ref_258","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2409","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-024-03765-8","article-title":"The entactogen 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; ecstasy) as a treatment aid in psychotherapy and its safety concerns","volume":"98","author":"Baldo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Arch Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_259","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108800","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2019.108800","article-title":"Alteration of gut microbiota composition by short-term low-dose alcohol intake is restored by fermented rice liquor in mice","volume":"128","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_260","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boonchooduang, N., Louthrenoo, O., Likhitweerawong, N., Kunasol, C., Thonusin, C., Sriwichaiin, S., Nawara, W., Chattipakorn, N., and Chattipakorn, S.C. (2025). Impact of psychostimulants on microbiota and short-chain fatty acids alterations in children with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder. Sci. Rep., 15.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-87546-y"},{"key":"ref_261","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1560","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiy349","article-title":"Effects of substance use and sex practices on the intestinal microbiome during HIV-1 infection","volume":"218","author":"Fulcher","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_262","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5078","DOI":"10.1111\/bph.15226","article-title":"Protective effects of \u0394(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol against enterotoxin-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome are mediated by modulation of microbiota","volume":"177","author":"Mohammed","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_263","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Yang, J., Yang, C., Chen, T., Wang, Z., Li, J., Qin, F., Deng, Q., and Zhang, X. (2020). Sensitivity to morphine reward associates with gut dysbiosis in rats with morphine-induced conditioned place preference. Front. Psychiatry, 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.00631"},{"key":"ref_264","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13523","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1901182116","article-title":"Morphine tolerance is attenuated in germfree mice and reversed by probiotics, implicating the role of gut microbiome","volume":"116","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_265","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2022.109466","article-title":"A dual treatment blocks alcohol binge-drinking relapse: Microbiota as a new player","volume":"236","author":"Ezquer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_266","first-page":"79","article-title":"Psychobiotics: A new perspective on the treatment of stress, anxiety, and depression","volume":"30","author":"Borrego","year":"2024","journal-title":"Anxiety Stress"},{"key":"ref_267","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.62641\/aep.v53i2.1920","article-title":"Nutritional psychiatry: A novel approach to the treatment of mental health disorders","volume":"53","author":"Borrego","year":"2025","journal-title":"Actas Esp. Psiquiatr."}],"container-title":["Life"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1729\/15\/6\/834\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:38:16Z","timestamp":1760031496000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1729\/15\/6\/834"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,22]]},"references-count":267,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["life15060834"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/life15060834","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-1729"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-1729","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,22]]}}}