{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T12:45:24Z","timestamp":1793105124666,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":111,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,29]],"date-time":"2025-05-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1748476800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Allergic diseases represent a major and growing global health concern, with increasing prevalence among both children and adults. This manuscript presents an extensive review of allergy mechanisms, epidemiology, diagnostics, and clinical challenges, highlighting the complex interplay between immune system dysregulation and environmental exposures. The authors provide a structured analysis of hypersensitivity types, with particular focus on IgE-mediated responses, and emphasize the role of immune barrier defects, epigenetics, and the microbiota in allergic pathogenesis. This manuscript explores diagnostic limitations, including test sensitivity, specificity, and the presence of hidden allergens, as well as challenges in identifying food-related or atypical allergic reactions. A novel and valuable aspect is the discussion of allergy as a potential clinical manifestation of primary immunodeficiencies, such as selective IgA deficiency, Wiskott\u2013Aldrich syndrome, hyper-IgE syndrome, and Netherton syndrome. This review also outlines challenges in treatment, especially among polysensitized patients, and examines the psychosocial burden and complications of allergic diseases, including mental health, nutritional deficiencies, and impaired sleep. This comprehensive synthesis underscores the need for early diagnosis, multidisciplinary management, and personalized therapeutic strategies to improve quality of life of allergic patients.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life15060878","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,29]],"date-time":"2025-05-29T07:46:26Z","timestamp":1748504786000},"page":"878","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Global Burden of Allergies: Mechanisms of Development, Challenges in Diagnosis, and Treatment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Ewa","family":"Alska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Allergology, Clinical Immunology and Internal Diseases, Collegium Medicum Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University Torun, 85-067 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-2989-3927","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agata","family":"Doligalska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Student Research Club of Clinical Immunology, Department of Allergology, Clinical Immunology and Internal Diseases, Collegium Medicum Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University Torun, 85-067 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2202-3222","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katarzyna","family":"Napi\u00f3rkowska-Baran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Allergology, Clinical Immunology and Internal Diseases, Collegium Medicum Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University Torun, 85-067 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marcin","family":"Dolina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Student Research Club of Clinical Immunology, Department of Allergology, Clinical Immunology and Internal Diseases, Collegium Medicum Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University Torun, 85-067 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-3973-178X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karolina","family":"Osi\u0144ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Student Research Club of Clinical Immunology, Department of Allergology, Clinical Immunology and Internal Diseases, Collegium Medicum Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University Torun, 85-067 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-0043-8715","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anastazja","family":"Pilichowicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Student Research Club of Clinical Immunology, Department of Allergology, Clinical Immunology and Internal Diseases, Collegium Medicum Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University Torun, 85-067 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aleksandra","family":"Wojtkiewicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Student Research Club of Clinical Immunology, Department of Allergology, Clinical Immunology and Internal Diseases, Collegium Medicum Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University Torun, 85-067 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-6814-3944","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Justyna Julia","family":"Kaczor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Student Research Club of Clinical Immunology, Department of Allergology, Clinical Immunology and Internal Diseases, Collegium Medicum Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University Torun, 85-067 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-4374-5331","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bart\u0142omiej","family":"Szymczak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Jan Biziel University Hospital No. 2 in Bydgoszcz, 85-168 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8328-1386","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zbigniew","family":"Bartuzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Allergology, Clinical Immunology and Internal Diseases, Collegium Medicum Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University Torun, 85-067 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2219","DOI":"10.1111\/all.14476","article-title":"The effects of climate change on respiratory allergy and asthma induced by pollen and mold allergens","volume":"75","author":"Vitale","year":"2020","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1080\/1744666X.2020.1774366","article-title":"Update on pollen-food allergy syndrome","volume":"16","author":"Poncet","year":"2020","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1111\/all.15560","article-title":"Frequency of food allergy in Europe: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"78","author":"Spolidoro","year":"2023","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2023.11.918","article-title":"Feast for thought: A comprehensive review of food allergy 2021\u20132023","volume":"153","author":"Bartha","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.alit.2024.08.007","article-title":"Comprehensive review of pollen-food allergy syndrome: Pathogenesis, epidemiology, and treatment approaches","volume":"74","author":"Kato","year":"2025","journal-title":"Allergol. Int."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3057","DOI":"10.1111\/all.15902","article-title":"EAACI guidelines on the diagnosis of IgE-mediated food allergy","volume":"78","author":"Santos","year":"2023","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1111\/pai.13389","article-title":"Biomarkers of diagnosis and resolution of food allergy","volume":"32","author":"Foong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pediatr. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1186\/s40413-016-0115-2","article-title":"Dissemination of definitions and concepts of allergic and hypersensitivity conditions","volume":"9","author":"Tanno","year":"2016","journal-title":"World Allergy Organ. J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"832","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2003.12.591","article-title":"Revised nomenclature for allergy for global use: Report of the Nomenclature Review Committee of the World Allergy Organization, October 2003","volume":"113","author":"Johansson","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2851","DOI":"10.1111\/all.15889","article-title":"Nomenclature of allergic diseases and hypersensitivity reactions: Adapted to modern needs: An EAACI position paper","volume":"78","author":"Jutel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Marwa, K., and Kondamudi, N.P. (2024). Type IV Hypersensitivity Reaction. StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2249979","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.202249979","article-title":"Complement-mediated immune mechanisms in allergy","volume":"53","author":"Laumonnier","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pratap, K., Taki, A.C., Johnston, E.B., Lopata, A.L., and Kamath, S.D. (2020). A Comprehensive Review on Natural Bioactive Compounds and Probiotics as Potential Therapeutics in Food Allergy Treatment. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00996"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-023-01344-4","article-title":"Pathogenesis of allergic diseases and implications for therapeutic interventions","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1031","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2020.11.044","article-title":"Shared DNA methylation signatures in childhood allergy: The MeDALL study","volume":"147","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.4168\/aard.2016.4.3.157","article-title":"Physical and biochemical characteristics of allergens","volume":"4","author":"Jeong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Allergy Asthma Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12312","DOI":"10.1002\/clt2.12312","article-title":"Tolerance to heated egg in egg allergy: Explanations and implications for prevention and treatment","volume":"13","author":"Leau","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonzalez-Klein, Z., Pazos-Castro, D., Hernandez-Ramirez, G., Garrido-Arandia, M., Diaz-Perales, A., and Tome-Amat, J. (2022). Lipid Ligands and Allergenic LTPs: Redefining the Paradigm of the Protein-Centered Vision in Allergy. Front. Allergy, 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/falgy.2022.864652"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Genchi, G., Carocci, A., Lauria, G., Sinicropi, M.S., and Catalano, A. (2020). Nickel: Human Health and Environmental Toxicology. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17030679"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"1057957","article-title":"A Case of Fish Sausage Anaphylaxis Induced by Epicutaneous Sensitization to Carmine Contained in Eyeshadows: The Effect of Chelation on Carmine Allergy","volume":"2024","author":"Yamaura","year":"2024","journal-title":"Case Rep. Dermatol. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"e217802","article-title":"Kounis Syndrome Associated With the Use of Diclofenac","volume":"50","author":"Pejcic","year":"2023","journal-title":"Tex. Heart Inst. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1007\/s12016-020-08806-5","article-title":"Fish Allergy: Fishing for Novel Diagnostic and Therapeutic Options","volume":"62","author":"Dijkema","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Rev. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.5114\/hpc.2018.76447","article-title":"Etiopathogenesis of allergic disaeses","volume":"12","author":"Kanikowska","year":"2018","journal-title":"Health Probl. Civiliz."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"232","article-title":"Selective IgA Deficiency with Multiple Autoimmune Comorbidities: A Case Report and Literature Review","volume":"20","author":"Hua","year":"2023","journal-title":"Iran. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, B., and Liu, G.Y. (2020). Staphylococcus aureus and Hyper-IgE Syndrome. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21239152"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mastrorilli, C., Chiera, F., Arasi, S., Giannetti, A., Caimmi, D., Dinardo, G., Gracci, S., Pecoraro, L., Del Giudice, M.M., and Bernardini, R. (2024). IgE-Mediated Legume Allergy: A Pediatric Perspective. J. Pers. Med., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm14090898"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"964","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2014.10.047","article-title":"How much is too much? Threshold dose distributions for 5 food allergens","volume":"135","author":"Beyer","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2013.10.032","article-title":"Establishment of Reference Doses for residues of allergenic foods: Report of the VITAL Expert Panel","volume":"63","author":"Taylor","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Skypala, I.J. (2019). Food-Induced Anaphylaxis: Role of Hidden Allergens and Cofactors. Front. Immunol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00673"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e29","DOI":"10.5415\/apallergy.2019.9.e29","article-title":"Chlorhexidine: A hidden life-threatening allergen","volume":"9","author":"Fernandes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Asia Pac. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.15586\/aei.v51i1.692","article-title":"IgE-mediated Anisakis allergy in children","volume":"51","author":"Pontone","year":"2023","journal-title":"Allergol. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1007\/s11882-024-01176-4","article-title":"Getting in Shape: Updates in Exercise Anaphylaxis","volume":"24","author":"Carlisle","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Allergy Asthma Rep."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brancaccio, R., Bonzano, L., Cocconcelli, A., Boyko, R., Ienopoli, G., and Motolese, A. (2024). Recurrent Kounis Syndrome: A Case Report and Literature Review. J. Clin. Med., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm13061647"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1007\/s11882-020-00954-0","article-title":"Alergeny antygenu 5 jad\u00f3w b\u0142onkoskrzyd\u0142ych i ich rola w diagnostyce i terapii alergii na jad","volume":"20","author":"Blank","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Allergy Asthma Rep."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.emc.2021.08.010","article-title":"Allergic Acute Coronary Syndrome\u2014Kounis Syndrome","volume":"40","author":"Alblaihed","year":"2022","journal-title":"Emerg. Med. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.5830\/CVJA-2022-042","article-title":"Kounis syndrome caused by bee sting: A case report and literature review","volume":"34","author":"Lin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. J. Afr."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1104","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1398-9995.1998.tb03824.x","article-title":"Acute pancreatitis caused by allergy to kiwi fruit","volume":"53","author":"Gastaminza","year":"1998","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"e71017","article-title":"A Case Report of Acute Pancreatitis in Food-Induced Anaphylaxis","volume":"16","author":"Wiese","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3287","DOI":"10.1007\/s10620-017-4817-2","article-title":"Food-Induced Acute Pancreatitis","volume":"62","author":"Manohar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.alit.2014.09.002","article-title":"Familial kiwi fruit allergy: A case report","volume":"64","author":"Ozturk","year":"2015","journal-title":"Allergol. Int."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1007\/s11130-022-00976-1","article-title":"Comprehensive Review on Banana Fruit Allergy: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, Management, and Potential Modification of Allergens through Food Processing","volume":"77","author":"Suriyamoorthy","year":"2022","journal-title":"Plant Foods Hum. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"5987123","article-title":"A Heart Gone Bananas: Allergy-Induced Coronary Vasospasm due to Banana (Kounis Syndrome)","volume":"2023","author":"Reinhold","year":"2023","journal-title":"Case Rep. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bringheli, I., Brindisi, G., Morelli, R., Marchetti, L., Cela, L., Gravina, A., Pastore, F., Semeraro, A., Cinicola, B., and Capponi, M. (2023). Kiwifruit\u2019s Allergy in Children: What Do We Know?. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15133030"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100467","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fochx.2022.100467","article-title":"Effects of variety, maturity and storage conditions on the allergic potential of kiwifruit and its relationship with antioxidant activity","volume":"16","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Chem. X"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Linhart, B., Freidl, R., Elisyutina, O., Khaitov, M., Karaulov, A., and Valenta, R. (2019). Molecular Approaches for Diagnosis, Therapy and Prevention of Cow\u2019s Milk Allergy. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11071492"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aksun T\u00fcmerkan, E.T. (2022). Detection of Parvalbumin Fish Allergen in Canned Tuna by Real-Time PCR Driven by Tuna Species and Can-Filling Medium. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27175674"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2011.01.020","article-title":"Improvement of mustard (Sinapis alba) allergy diagnosis and management by linking clinical features and component-resolved approaches","volume":"127","author":"Vereda","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1007\/s12016-017-8651-2","article-title":"A Comprehensive Review on Mustard-Induced Allergy and Implications for Human Health","volume":"57","author":"Sharma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Rev. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1473","DOI":"10.1007\/s10875-022-01289-3","article-title":"Human Inborn Errors of Immunity: 2022 Update on the Classification from the International Union of Immunological Societies Expert Committee","volume":"42","author":"Tangye","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1602","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaip.2023.04.018","article-title":"Inborn Errors of Immunity and Autoimmune Disease","volume":"11","author":"Gray","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. Pract."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pop.2022.12.001","article-title":"Inborn Errors of Immunity","volume":"50","author":"Baloh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Prim. Care"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1159\/000489705","article-title":"Importance of Specific IgE\/Total IgE Ratio in Disambiguating Amoxicillin Allergy Diagnosis in a Real-Life Setting","volume":"177","author":"Albanesi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cinicola, B.L., Pulvirenti, F., Capponi, M., Bonetti, M., Brindisi, G., Gori, A., De Castro, G., Anania, C., Duse, M., and Zicari, A.M. (2022). Selective IgA Deficiency and Allergy: A Fresh Look to an Old Story. Medicina, 58.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina58010129"},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"2","article-title":"Alergia, jako maska Pierwotnych Niedobor\u00f3w Odporno\u015bci","volume":"26","author":"Rosada","year":"2021","journal-title":"Alerg. Astma Immunol. Przegl\u0105d Klin."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Killeen, R.B., and Joseph, N.I. (2023). Selective IgA Deficiency. StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.1016\/j.revmed.2021.07.008","article-title":"Le d\u00e9ficit s\u00e9lectif en IgA [Selective IgA deficiency]","volume":"42","author":"Luca","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Intern."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Malik, M.A., and Masab, M. (2023). Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome. StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1002\/ajh.27183","article-title":"Wiskott\u2013Aldrich syndrome","volume":"99","author":"Pelling","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am. J. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.2147\/TACG.S213920","article-title":"Autoimmunity in Wiskott\u2013Aldrich Syndrome: Updated Perspectives","volume":"14","author":"Sudhakar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Clin. Genet."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.alit.2021.07.007","article-title":"Hyper-IgE syndrome, 2021 update","volume":"70","author":"Minegishi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Allergol. Int."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108988","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2022.108988","article-title":"Hyper IgE syndromes: A clinical approach","volume":"237","author":"Gharehzadehshirazi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.2174\/1573396320666230912103124","article-title":"Hyper IgE Syndromes","volume":"20","author":"Gracci","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Pediatr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1205","DOI":"10.1097\/MS9.0000000000001670","article-title":"Hyper-IgE syndrome: A case report","volume":"86","author":"Dave","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2122","DOI":"10.1111\/all.13578","article-title":"Hyper-IgE in the allergy clinic\u2014When is it primary immunodeficiency?","volume":"73","author":"Ponsford","year":"2018","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1159\/000514699","article-title":"Netherton Syndrome: Case Report and Review of the Literature","volume":"7","year":"2021","journal-title":"Skin Appendage Disord."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1007\/s40291-016-0243-y","article-title":"Zesp\u00f3\u0142 Nethertona: Przegl\u0105d genotypu i fenotypu","volume":"21","author":"Sarri","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Diagn. Ther."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1315","DOI":"10.1001\/jamadermatol.2022.3796","article-title":"Netherton Syndrome","volume":"158","author":"Drivenes","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.5114\/reum.2019.84814","article-title":"Determination of antibodies in everyday rheumatological practice","volume":"57","author":"Zalewska","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.5114\/ada.2017.71104","article-title":"The diagnosis and management of food allergies. Position paper of the Food Allergy Section the Polish Society of Allergology","volume":"34","author":"Bartuzi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Postep. Dermatol. Allergol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1111\/all.12523","article-title":"Disagreement between skin prick test and specific IgE in young children","volume":"70","author":"Schoos","year":"2015","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qiu, C., Zhong, L., Huang, C., Long, J., Ye, X., Wu, J., Dai, W., Lv, W., Xie, C., and Zhang, J. (2020). Cell-bound IgE and plasma IgE as a combined clinical diagnostic indicator for allergic patients. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-61455-8"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jped.2023.02.004","article-title":"Biomarkers associated with persistence and severity of IgE-mediated food allergies: A systematic review","volume":"99","author":"Malucelli","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1097\/ACI.0b013e32832d9049","article-title":"Double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge in adults in everyday clinical practice: A reappraisal of their limitations and real indications","volume":"9","author":"Asero","year":"2009","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1335","DOI":"10.2147\/JAA.S237759","article-title":"The Basophil Activation Test for Clinical Management of Food Allergies: Recent Advances and Future Directions","volume":"14","author":"Teodorowicz","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Asthma Allergy"},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"533","article-title":"Disorders with elevated immunoglobulin E levels","volume":"77","author":"Nowicka","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pneumonol. Alergol. Pol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20","DOI":"10.1183\/20734735.0362-2018","article-title":"Over- and under-diagnosis in asthma","volume":"15","author":"Kavanagh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Breathe"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E210","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.080006","article-title":"Diagnosis of asthma in adults","volume":"181","author":"Kaplan","year":"2009","journal-title":"CMAJ"},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) (2025, May 06). Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention. GINA Report., Available online: https:\/\/ginasthma.org."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1111\/cea.12881","article-title":"The current and future role of biomarkers in type 2 cytokine-mediated asthma management","volume":"47","author":"Pavord","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4193\/Rhin19.410","article-title":"European position paper on diagnostic tools in rhinology","volume":"57","author":"Rimmer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rhinology"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1111\/jdv.14891","article-title":"Consensus-based European guidelines for treatment of atopic eczema (atopic dermatitis) in adults and children: Part I","volume":"32","author":"Wollenberg","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1111\/all.12142","article-title":"Skin test concentrations for systemically administered drugs\u2014An ENDA\/EAACI Drug Allergy Interest Group position paper","volume":"68","author":"Brockow","year":"2013","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14002","DOI":"10.1111\/pai.14002","article-title":"Drug provocation test in children: All that glitters is not gold","volume":"34","author":"Moral","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pediatr. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.1111\/all.13262","article-title":"EAACI Guidelines on Allergen Immunotherapy: Insect Venom Allergy","volume":"73","author":"Sturm","year":"2018","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1097\/ACI.0b013e32833b280c","article-title":"Mastocytosis and insect venom allergy","volume":"10","author":"Bonadonna","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1111\/cod.13704","article-title":"Patch test results with the European baseline series and additions thereof in the ESSCA network, 2015\u20132018","volume":"84","author":"Uter","year":"2021","journal-title":"Contact Dermat."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1080\/1744666X.2017.1277142","article-title":"Real-life clinical practice and management of polysensitized patients with respiratory allergies: A large, global survey of clinicians prescribing allergen immunotherapy","volume":"13","author":"Wahn","year":"2017","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.2217\/imt-2019-0182","article-title":"Planning and approach to allergen-specific immunotherapy in polyallergic patients","volume":"12","author":"Bahceciler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunotherapy"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1854","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaip.2020.02.010","article-title":"Food Allergy from Infancy Through Adulthood","volume":"8","author":"Sicherer","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. Pract."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferreira, B.R., Pio-Abreu, J.L., Figueiredo, A., and Misery, L. (2021). Pruritus, Allergy and Autoimmunity: Paving the Way for an Integrated Understanding of Psychodermatological Diseases?. Front. Allergy, 2.","DOI":"10.3389\/falgy.2021.688999"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13606","DOI":"10.1111\/dth.13606","article-title":"When life is an itch: What harms, helps, and heals from the patients\u2019 perspective? Differences and similarities among skin diseases","volume":"33","author":"Chee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dermatol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e251244","DOI":"10.1136\/bcr-2022-251244","article-title":"Adolescent and young adult allergic asthma treatment challenges","volume":"15","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMJ Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1111\/all.14027","article-title":"New biological treatments for asthma and skin allergies","volume":"75","author":"Eyerich","year":"2020","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2020.03.033","article-title":"Cost considerations for clinicians prescribing biologic drugs: Who pays?","volume":"146","author":"Hvisdas","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-022-00786-1","article-title":"Allergen immunotherapy: Past, present and future","volume":"23","author":"Durham","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dona, D.W., and Suphioglu, C. (2020). Egg Allergy: Diagnosis and Immunotherapy. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21145010"},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"199","article-title":"Efficacy, patients\u2019 perception, and cost of medication in allergic rhinitis with subcutaneous immunotherapy","volume":"41","author":"Thanborisutkul","year":"2023","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1080\/03007995.2021.1903848","article-title":"Real-world evidence costs of allergic rhinitis and allergy immunotherapy in the commercially insured United States population","volume":"37","author":"Tkacz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Res. Opin."},{"key":"ref_99","first-page":"1585067","article-title":"Effect of an Educational Program on Healthcare Professionals\u2019 Readiness to Support Patients with Asthma, Allergies, and Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease for Improved Medication Adherence","volume":"2020","author":"Axelsson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nurs. Res. Pract."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Satnarine, T., Makkoukdji, N., Pundit, V., Vignau, A., Sharma, P., Warren, D., Kleiner, G., and Gans, M. (2025). Peanut Allergy Diagnosis: Current Practices, Emerging Technologies, and Future Directions. Allergies, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/allergies5010004"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.4168\/aair.2022.14.2.273","article-title":"Analysis of Quality of Life and Mental Health in Patients With Atopic Dermatitis, Asthma and Allergic Rhinitis Using a Nation-wide Database, KNHANES VII","volume":"14","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Allergy Asthma Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.15586\/aei.v50i2.525","article-title":"Impact of allergic reactions and urticaria on mental health and quality of life","volume":"50","author":"Stadler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Allergol. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_103","first-page":"100197","article-title":"Food Allergy, Eating Disorders and Body Image","volume":"6","author":"Jafri","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord. Rep."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100536","DOI":"10.1016\/j.waojou.2021.100536","article-title":"Impact of specific immunotherapy and sting challenge on the quality of life in patients with hymenoptera venom allergy","volume":"14","author":"Eitel","year":"2021","journal-title":"World Allergy Organ. J."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vassilopoulou, E., Venter, C., and Roth-Walter, F. (2024). Malnutrition and Allergies: Tipping the Immune Balance towards Health. J. Clin. Med., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm13164713"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaip.2021.07.052","article-title":"Avoidant-restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID): A treatable complication of food allergy","volume":"10","author":"Patrawala","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. Pract."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, O., Kim, B., Jeong, H., Lee, J., and Jung, H. (2021). Sleep, Fatigue, and Depressive Symptoms among Female Nurses with Allergic Rhinitis. Healthcare, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare9101328"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, J., Zhang, X., Zhao, Y., and Wang, Y. (2020). The association between allergic rhinitis and sleep: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0228533"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1558","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-022-02182-4","article-title":"Impaired sleep quality in children with allergic conjunctivitis and their parents","volume":"37","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sim\u00e3o Coelho, P., Martins-Dos-Santos, G., Mikovic, M., Carvalho, F., Cardoso, M., Serranho, S., Santos, S., Brito, A., Carreiro-Martins, P., and Leiria-Pinto, P. (Eur. Ann. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2024). Sleep breathing disorders in adolescents with asthma, Eur. Ann. Allergy Clin. Immunol., epub ahead of print.","DOI":"10.23822\/EurAnnACI.1764-1489.377"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1488","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaip.2020.12.007","article-title":"Sleep Disturbances and Atopic Dermatitis: Relationships, Methods for Assessment, and Therapies","volume":"9","author":"Bawany","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. Pract."}],"container-title":["Life"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1729\/15\/6\/878\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:43:05Z","timestamp":1760031785000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1729\/15\/6\/878"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,29]]},"references-count":111,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["life15060878"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/life15060878","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-1729"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-1729","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,29]]}}}