{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T01:38:01Z","timestamp":1790127481147,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":92,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]],"date-time":"2025-09-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757980800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Skin cancer is the most common cancer worldwide. The incidence of skin cancer has been increasing worldwide. Nearly 75% of all skin cancers are basal cell carcinomas (BCC), cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) represents approximately 20%, and those remaining are melanomas (4%) or other rare tumors (1%). Given the high cure rates and the ability to histologically confirm tumor clearance, surgical therapy is the gold standard for the treatment of skin cancer. Conventional surgery is the most employed technique for the removal of non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSCs). Mohs Micrographic Surgery (MMS) is the most precise surgical method for the treatment of non-melanoma skin cancer, allowing for 100% margin evaluation, being the gold-standard method for surgical treatment of non-melanoma skin cancer. Whenever it is possible to obtain wide margins (4 to 6 mm), cure rates vary from 70% to 99%. Imiquimod, a synthetic imidazoquinolinone amine, is a topical immune response modifier approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of external anogenital warts, actinic keratosis (AK), and superficial basal cell carcinoma (sBCC). The efficacy of imiquimod is primarily attributed to its ability to modulate both innate and adaptive immune responses, as well as its direct effects on cancer cells. Imiquimod exerts its immunomodulatory effects by activating Toll-like receptors 7 and 8 (TLR7\/8) on various immune cells, including dendritic cells, macrophages, and natural killer (NK) cells. Upon binding to these receptors, imiquimod triggers the MyD88-dependent signaling pathway, leading to the activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-\u03baB) and interferon regulatory factors (IRFs). This cascade leads to the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interferon-alpha (IFN-\u03b1), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-\u03b1), interleukin-12 (IL-12), and interleukin-6 (IL-6). These cytokines enhance local inflammation, recruit additional immune cells to the tumor site, and stimulate antigen presentation, thereby promoting an anti-tumor immune response. Radiation therapy (RTh) may be employed as a primary treatment to BCC. It may also be employed as an adjuvant treatment to surgery for SCC and aggressive subtypes of BCC. RTh triggers both direct and indirect DNA damage on cancer cells and generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) within cells. ROS trigger oxidative damage to DNA, proteins, and lipids, exacerbating the cellular stress and contributing to tumor cell death. Recently, immunotherapy emerged as a revolutionary treatment for all stages of SCC. Cemiplimab is a human programmed cell death 1 (PD-1)-blocking antibody that triggers a response to over 50% of patients with locally advanced and metastatic SCC. A randomized clinical trial (RCT) published in 2022 revealed that cemiplimab was highly effective in the neoadjuvant treatment of large SCCs. The drug promoted a significant tumor size decrease, enabling organ-sparing operations and a much better cosmetic effect. A few months ago, a RCT of cemiplimab on adjuvant therapy for locally aggressive SCC was published. Interestingly, cemiplimab was administered to patients with local or regional cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma after surgical resection and postoperative radiotherapy, at high risk for recurrence owing to nodal features, revealed that cemiplimab led to much lower risks both of locoregional recurrence and distant recurrence.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life15091447","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]],"date-time":"2025-09-16T10:06:25Z","timestamp":1758017185000},"page":"1447","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Indications and Mechanisms of Action of the Main Treatment Modalities for Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6182-6963","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcio F.","family":"Chedid","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Postgraduate Program in Medicine, Surgical Sciences and Oncological and Transplantation Surgery, Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre 90035-003, Brazil"},{"name":"Brazilian Research Council (CNPQ), Brasilia 70070-010, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aline C.","family":"Tregnago","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, Medical School, University of Caxias do Sul (UCS), Caxias do Sul 95070-560, Brazil"},{"name":"CPM Pathology Laboratory, Caxias do Sul 95020-170, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Floriano","family":"Riva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CPM Pathology Laboratory, Caxias do Sul 95020-170, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lucas","family":"Prediger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oncological and Transplantation Surgery, Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre 90035-903, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anisha","family":"Agarwal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internal Medicine, Ascension Saint Joseph Hospital, Chicago, IL 60657, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jane","family":"Mattei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Melanoma Medical Oncology, University of Texas in San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1081","DOI":"10.1001\/jamadermatol.2015.1187","article-title":"Incidence estimate of nonmelanoma skin cancer (Keratinocyte Carcinomas) in the U.S. population, 2012","volume":"151","author":"Rogers","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abd.2020.10.004","article-title":"Mohs micrographic surgery: A review of indications, technique, outcomes, and considerations","volume":"96","author":"Bittner","year":"2021","journal-title":"An. 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