{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T08:41:10Z","timestamp":1780648870342,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,3]],"date-time":"2025-10-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759449600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Introduction: Dry Eye Syndrome (DES) is a multifactorial disorder of the ocular surface, characterized by complex interactions between environmental factors, immune dysregulation, and potential genetic predispositions. Vitamin D deficiency, known for its immunomodulatory properties, has increasingly been implicated in the pathogenesis of DES; however, the underlying mechanisms remain insufficiently elucidated. Of particular interest is the vitamin D receptor (VDR) gene, whose polymorphisms may influence the bioavailability and biological activity of vitamin D. Objective: The aim of this study was to investigate the association between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D3] levels and selected polymorphisms in the VDR gene (Taq, Fok, Apa, and Bsm) in patients with DES and to analyze their potential clinical and genetic interactions. Methods: This prospective observational study included 60 patients with a confirmed diagnosis of DES. Serum 25(OH)D3 levels were measured, and genotyping of four VDR single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) was performed using PCR followed by restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. Genotype distributions were assessed in relation to vitamin D status using appropriate statistical tests and Hardy\u2013Weinberg equilibrium analysis. Results: Over 85% of patients exhibited insufficient or deficient vitamin D levels. Among the analyzed SNPs, only the ApaI polymorphism (rs7975232) showed a statistically significant association with vitamin D status (p = 0.0384), with the homozygous AA genotype being more prevalent among patients with hypovitaminosis. The remaining polymorphisms (TaqI, FokI, BsmI) did not reach statistical significance; however, potential trends were observed that may warrant further investigation in larger cohorts. Conclusion: The findings suggest a potential role for VDR gene variability in the regulation of systemic vitamin D levels in patients with DES. Identification of specific genotypes may contribute to the development of personalized diagnostic and therapeutic strategies, particularly for patients with treatment-resistant forms of the disease. These results support the integration of genetic biomarkers and nutritional parameters into modern ophthalmologic practice.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life15101552","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,3]],"date-time":"2025-10-03T11:53:37Z","timestamp":1759492417000},"page":"1552","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Vitamin D Receptor Gene Variants Associated with Serum 25(OH)D3 Levels in Patients with Dry Eye Syndrome"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9980-2588","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Borivoje","family":"Savic","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University Clinical Centre of Serbia, University Eye Hospital, Pasterova 2, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Svetlana","family":"Stanojlovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Clinical Centre of Serbia, University Eye Hospital, Pasterova 2, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bozidar","family":"Savic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Veterinary Medicine of Serbia, Janisa Janulisa 14, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jelena","family":"Kostic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Clinical Centre of Serbia, University Eye Hospital, Pasterova 2, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Margita","family":"Lucic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Clinical Centre of Serbia, University Eye Hospital, Pasterova 2, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katarina","family":"Jankovic Terzic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Specialist Ophthalmology Clinic and Optical Shop OKOiOKO, Mekenzijeva 20, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7963-5241","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bojana","family":"Dacic-Krnjaja","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Clinical Centre of Serbia, University Eye Hospital, Pasterova 2, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtos.2017.05.003","article-title":"TFOS DEWS II Epidemiology Report","volume":"15","author":"Stapleton","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ocul. 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