{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]],"date-time":"2026-06-25T03:32:28Z","timestamp":1782358348908,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759881600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Following childbirth, up to 20% of women may have postpartum depression (PPD), which can adversely affect the mother\u2019s health, the infant\u2019s development, and familial connections. Numerous causes exist, although recent research indicates that micronutrient shortages are modifiable biological factors. This systematic review aims to consolidate existing knowledge regarding the relationship between micronutrient levels and the risk of PPD. Methods: This review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA 2020 guidelines and registered with PROSPERO. We reviewed every study published up to 1 April 2025, on PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Nineteen studies met the inclusion criteria. We employed the Newcastle\u2013Ottawa Scale to assess bias. Results: Nineteen studies were included in the analysis. Vitamin D was the most extensively researched vitamin. The majority of the studies (9 out of 13) identified a significant correlation between low serum 25(OH)D levels and PPD symptoms. Individuals with diminished levels of vitamin B12 and zinc had an elevated risk of PPD. There was insufficient evidence for folate, magnesium, iron, and selenium. This was frequently due to methodological discrepancies, insufficient control of confounding variables, and variations in biomarker timing. The majority of the studies exhibit a low to moderate likelihood of bias. Conclusions: Increasing evidence suggests that deficiencies in specific micronutrients, particularly vitamin D, vitamin B12, and zinc, may contribute to the onset of postpartum depression. The results indicate that targeted nutritional screening and management may be beneficial in perinatal mental health care, notwithstanding the inability to ascertain the exact causative factors. There is a necessity for more rigorous longitudinal investigations and randomised trials to enhance our understanding of processes and assist physicians in making informed judgements.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life15101566","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T12:04:52Z","timestamp":1759925092000},"page":"1566","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Invisible Links: Associations Between Micronutrient Deficiencies and Postpartum Depression\u2014A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9477-7619","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Charalampos","family":"Voros","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, \u2018Alexandra\u2019 General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 80 Vasilissis Sofias Avenue, 11528 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7760-0608","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ioakeim","family":"Sapantzoglou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, \u2018Alexandra\u2019 General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 80 Vasilissis Sofias Avenue, 11528 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Diamantis","family":"Athanasiou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IVF Athens Reproduction Center V. Athanasiou, 15123 Maroussi, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Despoina","family":"Mavrogianni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, \u2018Alexandra\u2019 General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 80 Vasilissis Sofias Avenue, 11528 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7563-4305","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kyriakos","family":"Bananis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"King\u2019s College Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London SE5 9RS, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonia","family":"Athanasiou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IVF Athens Reproduction Center V. Athanasiou, 15123 Maroussi, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aikaterini","family":"Athanasiou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IVF Athens Reproduction Center V. Athanasiou, 15123 Maroussi, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Georgios","family":"Papadimas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Athens Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15772 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charalampos","family":"Tsimpoukelis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, \u2018Alexandra\u2019 General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 80 Vasilissis Sofias Avenue, 11528 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1376-7895","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Athanasios","family":"Gkirgkinoudis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, \u2018Alexandra\u2019 General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 80 Vasilissis Sofias Avenue, 11528 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9723-5054","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ioannis","family":"Papapanagiotou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Athens Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15772 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dimitrios","family":"Vaitsis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Athens Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15772 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aristotelis-Marios","family":"Koulakmanidis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, \u2018Alexandra\u2019 General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 80 Vasilissis Sofias Avenue, 11528 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sofia","family":"Ivanidou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Athens Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15772 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anahit J.","family":"Stepanyan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Athens Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15772 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Anastasia","family":"Daskalaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, \u2018Alexandra\u2019 General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 80 Vasilissis Sofias Avenue, 11528 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nikolaos","family":"Thomakos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, \u2018Alexandra\u2019 General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 80 Vasilissis Sofias Avenue, 11528 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8280-7796","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marianna","family":"Theodora","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, \u2018Alexandra\u2019 General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 80 Vasilissis Sofias Avenue, 11528 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2106-5922","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Panagiotis","family":"Antsaklis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, \u2018Alexandra\u2019 General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 80 Vasilissis Sofias Avenue, 11528 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fotios","family":"Chatzinikolaou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8686-594X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dimitrios","family":"Loutradis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Athens Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15772 Athens, Greece"},{"name":"Fertility Institute-Assisted Reproduction Unit, Paster 15, 11528 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7108-211X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Georgios","family":"Daskalakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, \u2018Alexandra\u2019 General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 80 Vasilissis Sofias Avenue, 11528 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"e41381","article-title":"Postpartum Depression and Maternal Care: Exploring the Complex Effects on Mothers and Infants","volume":"15","author":"Saharoy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20230007","DOI":"10.1590\/1984-3143-ar2023-0007","article-title":"Maternal obesity and ovarian failure: Is leptin the culprit?","volume":"19","author":"Sharma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anim. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-014-0468-6","article-title":"Perinatal Depression: An Update and Overview","volume":"16","author":"Stuart","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chc.2015.11.001","article-title":"The Neurobiological Impact of Postpartum Maternal Depression","volume":"25","author":"Drury","year":"2016","journal-title":"Child. Adolesc. Psychiatr. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-019-01364-y","article-title":"Understanding anhedonia: A qualitative study exploring loss of interest and pleasure in adolescent depression","volume":"29","author":"Watson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Child. Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1056","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(11)60871-4","article-title":"Depression in adolescence","volume":"9820","author":"Thapar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khamidullina, Z., Marat, A., Muratbekova, S., Mustapayeva, N.M., Chingayeva, G.N., Shepetov, A.M., Ibatova, S.S., Terzic, M., and Aimagambetova, G. (2025). Postpartum Depression Epidemiology, Risk Factors, Diagnosis, and Management: An Appraisal of the Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives. JCM, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14072418"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1186\/s13033-016-0102-6","article-title":"Validating the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale as a screening tool for postpartum depression in Kathmandu, Nepal","volume":"10","author":"Bhusal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Ment. Health Syst."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1891\/1946-6560.3.1.59","article-title":"The Prevalence of Mental Health Disorders in a Community Sample of Female Victims of Intimate Partner Violence","volume":"3","author":"Nathanson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Partn. Abus."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"1745506519844044","article-title":"Consequences of maternal postpartum depression: A systematic review of maternal and infant outcomes","volume":"15","author":"Slomian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Womens Health"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"11","article-title":"Postpartum Depression in Men","volume":"16","author":"Scarff","year":"2019","journal-title":"Innov. Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, Y., Liang, H.-F., Chen, J., Li, Z.-B., Han, Y.-S., Chen, J.-X., and Li, J.-C. (2021). Postpartum Depression: Current Status and Possible Identification Using Biomarkers. Front. Psychiatry, 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.620371"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zieli\u0144ska, M., \u0141uszczki, E., and Dere\u0144, K. (2023). Dietary Nutrient Deficiencies and Risk of Depression (Review Article 2018\u20132023). Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15112433"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"e46209","article-title":"A Comprehensive Review of Motherhood and Mental Health: Postpartum Mood Disorders in Focus","volume":"15","author":"Modak","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2014.01.027","article-title":"Concise Review for Physicians and Other Clinicians: Postpartum Depression","volume":"89","author":"Bobo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-012-1037-4","article-title":"Social Support During the Postpartum Period: Mothers\u2019 Views on Needs, Expectations, and Mobilization of Support","volume":"17","author":"Negron","year":"2013","journal-title":"Matern. Child. Health J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2055102919898611","DOI":"10.1177\/2055102919898611","article-title":"First-time mothers\u2019 perceptions of social support: Recommendations for best practice","volume":"7","author":"Due","year":"2020","journal-title":"Health Psychol. Open"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khademi, K., and Kaveh, M.H. (2024). Social support as a coping resource for psychosocial conditions in postpartum period: A systematic review and logic framework. BMC Psychol., 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40359-024-01814-6"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.4103\/ijmr.IJMR_3489_20","article-title":"Prevalence of postpartum depression & anxiety among women in rural India: Risk factors & psychosocial correlates","volume":"158","author":"Dadhwal","year":"2023","journal-title":"Indian. J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1002\/dev.21040","article-title":"Sleep and sleepiness among first-time postpartum parents: A field- and laboratory-based multimethod assessment","volume":"55","author":"Insana","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dev. Psychobiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.4069\/kjwhn.2022.01.04","article-title":"Concept analysis of transition to motherhood: A methodological study","volume":"28","author":"Hwang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Korean J. Women Health Nurs."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2015.302973","article-title":"The Implications of Unintended Pregnancies for Mental Health in Later Life","volume":"106","author":"Herd","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Public. Health"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bell, Z., Nguyen, G., Andreae, G., Scott, S., Sermin-Reed, L., Lake, A.A., and Heslehurst, N. (2024). Associations between food insecurity in high-income countries and pregnancy outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med., 21.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1004450"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1089\/whr.2023.0050","article-title":"Postpartum Depressive Symptoms: An Analysis of Social Determinants Using the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System","volume":"4","author":"Su","year":"2023","journal-title":"Women\u2019s Health Rep."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Mutawtah, M., Campbell, E., Kubis, H.-P., and Erjavec, M. (2023). Women\u2019s experiences of social support during pregnancy: A qualitative systematic review. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-023-06089-0"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1363\/48e9016","article-title":"Social Norms and Stigma Regarding Unintended Pregnancy and Pregnancy Decisions: A Qualitative Study of Young Women in Alabama","volume":"48","author":"Smith","year":"2016","journal-title":"Perspect. Sex. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahsan, A., Nadeem, A., Habib, A., Basaria, A.A.A., Tariq, R., and Raufi, N. (2023). Post-traumatic stress disorder following childbirth: A neglected cause. Front. Glob. Womens Health, 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/fgwh.2023.1273519"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"e30898","article-title":"Risk Factors of Postpartum Depression","volume":"14","author":"Agrawal","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.3390\/women3030033","article-title":"Reproductive Hormones and Female Mental Wellbeing","volume":"3","author":"Wieczorek","year":"2023","journal-title":"Women"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2016.06.025","article-title":"Bipolar II disorder as a risk factor for postpartum depression","volume":"204","author":"Mandelli","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"57","article-title":"Misdiagnosis of bipolar disorder","volume":"3","author":"Singh","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2015.11.014","article-title":"Identifying the women at risk of antenatal anxiety and depression: A systematic review","volume":"191","author":"Biaggi","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1089\/jwh.2020.8862","article-title":"Perinatal Depression: Challenges and Opportunities","volume":"30","author":"Dagher","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Women\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jalal, S.M., Alsebeiy, S.H., and Alshealah, N.M.J. (2024). Stress, Anxiety, and Depression During Pregnancy: A Survey Among Antenatal Women Attending Primary Health Centers. Healthcare, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare12222227"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1177\/2374373520966818","article-title":"Mexican-Born Women\u2019s Experiences of Perinatal Care in the United States","volume":"7","author":"Trainor","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Patient Exp."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kasujja, M., Omara, S., Senkungu, N., Ndibuuza, S., Kirabira, J., Ibe, U., and Barankunda, L. (2024). Factors associated with antenatal depression among women attending antenatal care at Mubende Regional Referral Hospital: A cross-sectional study. BMC Women\u2019s Health, 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12905-024-03031-0"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2021.07.009","article-title":"High worry in pregnancy predicts postpartum depression","volume":"294","author":"Osborne","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejogrb.2008.09.009","article-title":"Levels and effects of different forms of anxiety during pregnancy after a prior miscarriage","volume":"142","author":"Fertl","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ertan, D., Hingray, C., Burlacu, E., Sterl\u00e9, A., and El-Hage, W. (2021). Post-traumatic stress disorder following childbirth. BMC Psychiatry, 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-021-03158-6"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1111\/aogs.13275","article-title":"Delineating the association between mode of delivery and postpartum depression symptoms: A longitudinal study","volume":"97","author":"Eckerdal","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Obs. Gynecol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earlhumdev.2016.05.006","article-title":"Influence of elective and emergency cesarean delivery on mother emotions and bonding","volume":"99","author":"Zanardo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Early Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajogmf.2021.100359","article-title":"Shoulder dystocia and composite adverse outcomes for the maternal-neonatal dyad","volume":"3","author":"Hoffman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. MFM"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1111\/jmwh.12294","article-title":"Perineal Injury During Childbirth Increases Risk of Postpartum Depressive Symptoms and Inflammatory Markers","volume":"60","author":"Dunn","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Midwife Womens Health"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tasman, A., Riba, M.B., Alarc\u00f3n, R.D., Alfonso, C.A., Kanba, S., Lecic-Tosevski, D., Ndetei, D.M., Ng, C.H., and Schulze, T.G. (2024). Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder, Peripartum (Perinatal) Depression, and Perimenopausal Depression. Tasman\u2019s Psychiatry, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-51366-5"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsps.2023.05.008","article-title":"Postpartum depression: Aetiology, pathogenesis and the role of nutrients and dietary supplements in prevention and management","volume":"31","author":"Rupanagunta","year":"2023","journal-title":"Saudi Pharm. J."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1139\/jpn.0831","article-title":"Reproductive hormone sensitivity and risk for depression across the female life cycle: A continuum of vulnerability?","volume":"33","author":"Soares","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Psychiatry Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E40","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2010-0978","article-title":"Elevated Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH) during Pregnancy and Risk of Postpartum Depression (PPD)","volume":"96","author":"Stuebe","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, K., He, L., Li, Z., Ding, R., Han, X., Chen, B., Cao, G., Ye, J.-H., Li, T., and Fu, R. (2024). Bridging Neurobiological Insights and Clinical Biomarkers in Postpartum Depression: A Narrative Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25168835"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"e45554","article-title":"Thyroid Predictors of Postpartum Mood Disorders","volume":"15","author":"Backer","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Georgescu, T., Swart, J.M., Grattan, D.R., and Brown, R.S.E. (2021). The Prolactin Family of Hormones as Regulators of Maternal Mood and Behavior. Front. Glob. Womens Health, 2.","DOI":"10.3389\/fgwh.2021.767467"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinthera.2021.11.007","article-title":"Maternal Psychological Distress and Lactation and Breastfeeding Outcomes: A Narrative Review","volume":"44","author":"Nagel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Ther."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kunysz, M., Mora-Janiszewska, O., and Darmochwa\u0142-Kolarz, D. (2021). Epigenetic Modifications Associated with Exposure to Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals in Patients with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22094693"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u0103lcudean, A., Bodo, C.-R., Popovici, R.-A., Cozma, M.-M., P\u0103curar, M., Cr\u0103ciun, R.-E., Crisan, A.-I., Enatescu, V.-R., Marinescu, I., and Cimpian, D.-M. (2025). Neuroinflammation\u2014A Crucial Factor in the Pathophysiology of Depression\u2014A Comprehensive Review. Biomolecules, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15040502"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2014.07.032","article-title":"A review of the relationship between proinflammatory cytokines and major depressive disorder","volume":"169","author":"Young","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1186\/1746-4358-2-6","article-title":"A new paradigm for depression in new mothers: The central role of inflammation and how breastfeeding and anti-inflammatory treatments protect maternal mental health","volume":"2","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. Breastfeed. J."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17448069241275097","DOI":"10.1177\/17448069241275097","article-title":"Understanding the kynurenine pathway: A narrative review on its impact across chronic pain conditions","volume":"20","author":"Hazrati","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol. Pain"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.9758\/cpn.2020.18.4.507","article-title":"Kynurenine Pathway of Tryptophan Metabolism in Neuropsychiatric Disorders: Pathophysiologic and Therapeutic Considerations","volume":"18","author":"Muneer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Psychopharmacol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.108.095091","article-title":"Micronutrient Deficiencies Are Associated with Impaired Immune Response and Higher Burden of Respiratory Infections in Elderly Ecuadorians","volume":"139","author":"Hamer","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pecora, F., Persico, F., Argentiero, A., Neglia, C., and Esposito, S. (2020). The Role of Micronutrients in Support of the Immune Response against Viral Infections. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12103198"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dhiman, P., Pillai, R.R., Wilson, A.B., Premkumar, N., Bharadwaj, B., Ranjan, V.P., and Rajendiran, S. (2021). Cross-sectional association between vitamin B12 status and probable postpartum depression in Indian women. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-021-03622-x"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568S","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/131.2.568S","article-title":"Iron Biology in Immune Function, Muscle Metabolism and Neuronal Functioning","volume":"131","author":"Beard","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1631","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980021003761","article-title":"Is iron deficiency a risk factor for postpartum depression? A case\u2013control study in the Gaza Strip, Palestine","volume":"25","author":"Hameed","year":"2022","journal-title":"Public. Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2021.01.010","article-title":"The Function and Regulation of Zinc in the Brain","volume":"457","author":"Krall","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.35946\/arcr.v34.4.11","article-title":"Stress and the HPA axis: Role of glucocorticoids in alcohol dependence","volume":"34","author":"Stephens","year":"2012","journal-title":"Alcohol. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"303","article-title":"Brain and CSF magnesium concentrations during magnesium deficit in animals and humans: Neurological symptoms","volume":"5","author":"Morris","year":"1992","journal-title":"Magnes. Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1006","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2025.01.021","article-title":"Structural insights into the diverse actions of magnesium on NMDA receptors","volume":"113","author":"Huang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"e2960","article-title":"The Role of Vitamin D in Brain Health: A Mini Literature Review","volume":"10","author":"Anjum","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cui, X., and Eyles, D.W. (2022). Vitamin D and the Central Nervous System: Causative and Preventative Mechanisms in Brain Disorders. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14204353"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lyon, P., Strippoli, V., Fang, B., and Cimmino, L. (2020). B Vitamins and One-Carbon Metabolism: Implications in Human Health and Disease. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12092867"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajp.2013.05.007","article-title":"Homocysteine and serotonin: Association with postpartum depression","volume":"6","author":"Aishwarya","year":"2013","journal-title":"Asian J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2028","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2020.01.045","article-title":"Blunted Vagal Cocaine- and Amphetamine-Regulated Transcript Promotes Hyperphagia and Weight Gain","volume":"30","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Wu, Y., Chen, T., Wu, X., Yuan, W., Zhu, Q., Wang, X., and Zi, C. (2025). Selenium and Selenoproteins: Mechanisms, Health Functions, and Emerging Applications. Molecules, 30.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30030437"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2023\/8403222","article-title":"Prevalence of Postpartum Depression Based on Diagnostic Interviews: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"2023","author":"Bai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Depress. Anxiety"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), American Psychiatric Association Publishing.","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596"},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2019). International Classification of Diseases 11th Revision (ICD-11) for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2010.11.006","article-title":"An association between plasma ferritin concentrations measured 48 h after delivery and postpartum depression","volume":"131","author":"Albacar","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Noshiro, K., Umazume, T., Inubashiri, M., Tamura, M., Hosaka, M., and Watari, H. (2023). Association between Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale and Serum Levels of Ketone Bodies and Vitamin D, Thyroid Function, and Iron Metabolism. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15030768"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1007\/s00737-014-0422-y","article-title":"Low maternal serum vitamin D during pregnancy and the risk for postpartum depression symptoms","volume":"17","author":"Robinson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch. Womens Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"295","article-title":"The role of pterins and related factors in the biology of early postpartum depression","volume":"9","author":"Ghubash","year":"1999","journal-title":"Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"5","article-title":"Postpartum depressive symptoms: The B-vitamin link","volume":"9","author":"Blunden","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ment. Health Fam. Med."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1177\/1078390310370476","article-title":"An exploratory study of postpartum depression and vitamin d","volume":"16","author":"Murphy","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Psychiatr. Nurses Assoc."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arcmed.2020.10.003","article-title":"Reduced Maternal Serum Total, Free and Bioavailable Vitamin D Levels and its Association with the Risk for Postpartum Depressive Symptoms","volume":"52","author":"Pillai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arch. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2014.04.006","article-title":"Relationships of maternal folate and vitamin B12 status during pregnancy with perinatal depression: The GUSTO study","volume":"55","author":"Chong","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"571","article-title":"Antepartum\/postpartum depressive symptoms and serum zinc and magnesium levels","volume":"58","author":"Wojcik","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1500","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-016-9741-5","article-title":"Lower Serum Zinc and Higher CRP Strongly Predict Prenatal Depression and Physio-somatic Symptoms, Which All Together Predict Postnatal Depressive Symptoms","volume":"54","author":"Roomruangwong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1089\/jwh.2019.8209","article-title":"Low Prenatal Vitamin D Metabolite Ratio and Subsequent Postpartum Depression Risk","volume":"30","author":"Accortt","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Womens Health"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1097\/PSY.0000000000001328","article-title":"Associations Between Early-Pregnancy Vitamin D Status and Postpartum Depressive and Anxiety Symptoms","volume":"86","author":"Vrijkotte","year":"2024","journal-title":"Psychosom. Med."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1688","DOI":"10.1111\/1471-0528.13111","article-title":"Association between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels measured 24 hours after delivery and postpartum depression","volume":"122","author":"Fu","year":"2015","journal-title":"BJOG"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejogrb.2014.05.017","article-title":"Mid-pregnancy vitamin D levels and postpartum depression","volume":"179","author":"Gur","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Obs. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1007\/s00737-018-0852-z","article-title":"Vitamin D deficiency and depressive symptoms in the perinatal period","volume":"21","author":"Lamb","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch. Womens Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, Y.-H., Chen, C.-M., Su, H.-M., Mu, S.-C., Chang, M.-L., Chu, P.-Y., and Li, S.-C. (2019). Association between Postpartum Nutritional Status and Postpartum Depression Symptoms. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11061204"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.5336\/jcog.2020-74215","article-title":"Evaluation of the Relationship Between the Level of Vitamin D in Maternal Blood and Breast Milk and Postpartum Depression","volume":"30","author":"Yuvaci","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Obs. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2022.11.030","article-title":"Perinatal depression and serum vitamin D status: A cross-sectional study in urban China","volume":"322","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.4103\/ijpvm.ijpvm_30_24","article-title":"Association of Postpartum Depression with Maternal Serum Magnesium Levels, Infant Growth, and Neurodevelopmental Indices","volume":"15","author":"Pourmirzaiee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1007\/s00404-018-4902-6","article-title":"Association between vitamin D deficiency and antepartum and postpartum depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies","volume":"298","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch. Gynecol. Obs."}],"container-title":["Life"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1729\/15\/10\/1566\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]],"date-time":"2025-10-14T06:05:18Z","timestamp":1760421918000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1729\/15\/10\/1566"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]]},"references-count":95,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["life15101566"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/life15101566","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-1729"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-1729","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]]}}}