{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,4]],"date-time":"2026-04-04T02:03:15Z","timestamp":1775268195972,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":295,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759968000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The interaction between microorganisms in the dental microfilm (plaque) at the gingival margin, the immune system, and the brain is vital for gingival health. The brain constantly receives information regarding microbial composition and inflammation status through afferent nerves and the bloodstream. It modulates immune responses via efferent nerves and hormonal systems to maintain homeostasis. This relationship determines whether the gingiva remains healthy or develops into gingivitis (non-destructive inflammation) or periodontitis (a destructive condition), collectively referred to as periodontal disease. Factors associated with severe periodontitis heighten the responsiveness of this homeostatic system, diminishing the adaptive immune system\u2019s defence against symbiotic microorganisms with pathogenic properties, known as pathobionts. This leads to excessive innate immune system activation, effectively preventing infection but damaging the periodontium. Consequently, investigating the microbiota\u2013brain axis is vital for understanding its impact on periodontal health and disease. Herein, we examine recent advancements in how the defence against pathobionts is organised within the brain, and how it regulates and adapts the pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory immune balance, controlling microbiota composition. It also discussed how pathobionts and emotional stress can trigger neurodegenerative diseases, and how inadequate coping strategies for managing daily stress and shift work can disrupt brain circuits linked to immune regulation, weakening the adaptive immune response against pathobionts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life15101572","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:54:31Z","timestamp":1760028871000},"page":"1572","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Brain Structures, Circuits, and Networks Involved in Immune Regulation, Periodontal Health, and Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Torbj\u00f8rn Jarle","family":"Breivik","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Clinical Odontology\u2013Periodontology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Oslo, 0455 Oslo, Norway"},{"name":"Norwegian Defense Research Establishment, Division for Protection, 2027 Kjeller, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Per","family":"Gjermo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Clinical Odontology\u2013Periodontology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Oslo, 0455 Oslo, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Per Kristian","family":"Opstad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Norwegian Defense Research Establishment, Division for Protection, 2027 Kjeller, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Robert","family":"Murison","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological and Medical Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University Bergen, 5021 Bergen, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6409-0664","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephan","family":"von H\u00f6rsten","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental Therapy, Preclinical Experimental Center, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universit\u00e4t Erlangen-N\u00fcrnberg (FAU), 91054 Erlangen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3054-6501","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Inge","family":"Fristad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Dentistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Bergen, 5009 Bergen, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1159\/000452902","article-title":"Immune-neuro-endocrine reflexes, circuits, and networks: Physiologic and evolutionary implications","volume":"48","author":"Rey","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. 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