{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T20:16:39Z","timestamp":1768508199577,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]],"date-time":"2026-01-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768262400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003549","name":"Hungarian Scientific Research Fund","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["#138039, ZP; #146787, IF"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#138039, ZP; #146787, IF"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003549","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Segment regeneration in earthworms is a remarkable example of postembryonic morphogenesis, yet its fidelity and cellular mechanisms remain incompletely understood. The present study investigated posterior segment regeneration in adult specimens of the earthworm model Eisenia andrei from wound closure to the 5th postoperative week using anatomical, histological, and ultrastructural approaches. Rapid wound closure occurred through fusion of the cut edges of the body wall and midgut without direct involvement of coelomocytes. The regeneration blastema consisted of dedifferentiated epithelial and muscle cells, innervated by fibers from the last intact ventral nerve cord ganglion. Coelomocytes accumulated in the last intact segments and were primarily involved in debris clearance. Notably, early regenerating tissues lacked collagen fibers, which appeared only after the third postoperative week and remained sparse until the fifth week, whereas original segments exhibited intense, region-specific collagen deposition. Transmission electron microscopy revealed characteristic cytological changes in distinct stages of body wall regeneration, including muscle dedifferentiation and the emergence of collagen-producing fibroblasts. These findings indicate that early cell migration, proliferation, and orientation in the blastema proceed independently of collagen and that collagen functions as a delayed structural scaffold, supporting tissue integrity without impeding regeneration. Importantly, no scar formation was observed between old and new tissues, resembling scarless fetal wound healing. Overall, we clarified previously controversial cellular mechanisms and propose a new, comprehensive model for the early stages of segment regeneration. Our results highlight that coordinated dedifferentiation, spatiotemporal extracellular remodeling, and delayed collagen deposition underlie effective, scar-free regeneration in earthworms, offering insights into conserved mechanisms of regenerative repair across metazoans and potential strategies for enhancing tissue regeneration in mammals.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life16010119","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]],"date-time":"2026-01-13T15:52:57Z","timestamp":1768319577000},"page":"119","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Segment Regeneration of an Earthworm I: Formation of the Body Wall Tissues from Injury to Recovery"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Gabriella Laura","family":"T\u00f3th","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Ecophysiological and Environmental Toxicological Research Group, HUN-REN Balaton Limnological Research Institute, 8237 Tihany, Hungary"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Edit","family":"Poll\u00e1k","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurobiology, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of P\u00e9cs, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anita","family":"Erd\u00e9lyi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurobiology, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of P\u00e9cs, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Eszter","family":"V\u00e1rhalmi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurobiology, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of P\u00e9cs, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zsolt","family":"Pirger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ecophysiological and Environmental Toxicological Research Group, HUN-REN Balaton Limnological Research Institute, 8237 Tihany, Hungary"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7817-421X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Istv\u00e1n","family":"Fodor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ecophysiological and Environmental Toxicological Research Group, HUN-REN Balaton Limnological Research Institute, 8237 Tihany, Hungary"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0049-9679","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"L\u00e1szl\u00f3","family":"Moln\u00e1r","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ecophysiological and Environmental Toxicological Research Group, HUN-REN Balaton Limnological Research Institute, 8237 Tihany, Hungary"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.cellbio.24.110707.175336","article-title":"Comparative aspects of animal regeneration","volume":"24","author":"Brockes","year":"2008","journal-title":"Annu. 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