{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T07:49:49Z","timestamp":1782892189720,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768435200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009708","name":"Novo Nordisk Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NNF20OC0065099"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NNF20OC0065099"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009708","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Elssa Foundation","award":["24-B01-0592"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24-B01-0592"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Traumatic brain injury (TBI) often leads to long-lasting motor deficits, but the underlying cellular mechanisms still remain poorly understood. In this study, we examined glial and neuronal responses after focal cortical aspiration injury of the right hindlimb sensorimotor cortex in adult male rats. This is a model we have previously shown induces persistent gait asymmetry and postural deficits. Immunohistochemical analysis of activated microglia\/macrophages (CD11b, IBA-1), astrocytes (GFAP), and neurons (NeuN) was performed bilaterally in the peri-lesional cortex at 3, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days post-injury (n = 3\u20136 per time point). The injury induced an early, sharply localized increase in CD11b-positive myeloid cells in the injured hemisphere, suggesting an activation of both resident microglia and infiltrating monocyte-derived cell. This was followed by a more sustained IBA-1-positive microglial activation that gradually extended contralaterally. Astrocytic activation showed a delayed but prolonged profile, rising ipsilaterally within the first week, peaking around two weeks, and becoming bilaterally elevated by four weeks. Sham-operated animals showed only basal glial immunoreactivity without signs of hypertrophy or reactive morphology at any time point. NeuN immunoreactivity remained stable across timepoints, suggesting preservation of neuronal soma labeling without evidence of overt secondary neuronal loss. These findings reveal a staged and spatially distinct glial response to focal cortical injury, with early myeloid activation, prolonged microglial reactivity, and delayed bilateral astrogliosis. Together, these findings are consistent with the possibility that persistent motor deficits after focal TBI arise from both primary tissue loss within the lesion core and peri-lesional glial remodeling, highlighting glial\u2013neuronal interactions as a potential therapeutic target.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life16010142","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T12:31:41Z","timestamp":1768480301000},"page":"142","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Temporal and Spatial Patterns of Glial Activation After Unilateral Cortical Injury in Rats"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Karen Kalh\u00f8j","family":"Rich","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5230 Odense, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6000-4773","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simone","family":"Hj\u00e6resen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5230 Odense, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marlene Storm","family":"Andersen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5230 Odense, Denmark"},{"name":"Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5230 Odense, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Louise Bj\u00f8rnager","family":"Hansen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5230 Odense, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ali Salh","family":"Mohammad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5230 Odense, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-7418-5561","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nilukshi","family":"Gopinathan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5230 Odense, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tobias Christian","family":"Mogensen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5230 Odense, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5651-265X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00c5sa","family":"Fex Svenningsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5230 Odense, Denmark"},{"name":"Brain Research-Inter Disciplinary Guided Excellence (BRIDGE), University of Southern Denmark, DK-5230 Odense, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5945-6625","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mengliang","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5230 Odense, Denmark"},{"name":"Brain Research-Inter Disciplinary Guided Excellence (BRIDGE), University of Southern Denmark, DK-5230 Odense, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100092","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brain.2024.100092","article-title":"Traumatic brain injury or traumatic brain disease: A scientific commentary","volume":"6","author":"Obasa","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brain Multiphysics"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1080","DOI":"10.3171\/2017.10.JNS17352","article-title":"Estimating the global incidence of traumatic brain injury","volume":"130","author":"Dewan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. 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