{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:53:02Z","timestamp":1787028782584,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":256,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,1]],"date-time":"2026-02-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769904000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive brain stimulation tool for investigating the neurophysiology of different neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders, including Parkinson\u2019s disease (PD) and other parkinsonian syndromes and movement disorders. Briefly, TMS enables targeted stimulation of specific cortical regions through externally applied magnetic pulses, avoiding surgical intervention (as it occurs in deep brain stimulation) and making it a safe, repeatable, and well-tolerated approach. Over the past two decades, extensive research has explored the clinical utility of TMS in PD, with particular emphasis on motor cortex excitability, synaptic plasticity, and functional connectivity, which are central contributors to both motor and non-motor symptoms in PD patients. In addition, repetitive TMS and related stimulation paradigms have been shown to positively modulate cortical plasticity, i.e., the brain\u2019s capacity to reorganize neural circuits, suggesting potential benefits for longer-term non-pharmacological management and rehabilitation protocols. More recently, studies have also investigated the role of TMS in atypical and secondary parkinsonisms, indicating that it may help characterize distinct neurophysiological abnormalities and provide symptomatic improvement in selected patients. This narrative expert review provides a comprehensive summary of TMS applications across the wide spectrum of parkinsonian syndromes, highlighting not only clinical potential, but also methodological limitations and future research directions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life16020233","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,2]],"date-time":"2026-02-02T12:00:47Z","timestamp":1770033647000},"page":"233","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Parkinson\u2019s Disease and Parkinsonian Syndromes: A Narrative Expert Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9072-4971","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mariagiovanna","family":"Cantone","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Neurology, Policlinico University Hospital \u201cG. Rodolico-San Marco\u201d, 95123 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manuela","family":"Pennisi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8332-6863","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rita","family":"Bella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Advanced Technologies \u201cG. F. Ingrassia\u201d, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6937-3065","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raffaele","family":"Ferri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1579-8807","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Fisicaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Primary Health Care Unit, Provincial Health Authority of Siracusa, 96100 Siracusa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5659-662X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Lanza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Surgery and Medical-Surgical Specialties, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6662-2281","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria P.","family":"Mogavero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-3050-4871","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aurora","family":"Palmigiano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery and Medical-Surgical Specialties, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7121-0692","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Angelica","family":"Quercia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mario","family":"Zappia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Advanced Technologies \u201cG. 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