{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T20:35:15Z","timestamp":1791232515915,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":135,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]],"date-time":"2026-03-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773273600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003977","name":"Israel Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["1397\/08"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1397\/08"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003977","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001741","name":"Dan David Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001741","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>It is widely accepted that modern humans display distinctive vertebral and intervertebral disc (IVD) morphologies that evolved to meet the biomechanical demands of habitual terrestrial bipedalism. This study synthesizes macro- and microstructural differences in the lumbar spine to clarify how human specializations compare with those of extant apes. The skeletal sample consisted of 240 humans, 20 chimpanzees, and 25 gorillas. The CT scan sample comprised 180 humans and eight chimpanzees. Histological analysis of the IVD was performed on 10 humans and four ape specimens. Vertebral bodies and discs were measured. Histological analyses employed hematoxylin\u2013eosin, Von Kossa, and Van Gieson staining. Statistical analyses included ANOVA with Bonferroni-corrected t-tests or Welch\u2019s ANOVA and Games\u2013Howell post hoc tests. Regression analyses were performed using ordinary least-squares estimation, and differences between regression lines were assessed using ANCOVA. Humans and chimpanzees differed significantly in vertebral body proportions, bone volume fraction, IVD thickness, apophyseal ring thickness, annulus fibrosus lamellar organization, endplate and subchondral bone thickness, and vascularization at the bone\u2013endplate interface. These results indicate substantial evolutionary modification of the human vertebral body and IVD, enhancing rotational mobility and resistance to axial loading, key functional requirements for maintaining upright posture and efficient bipedal locomotion.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life16030466","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]],"date-time":"2026-03-12T09:23:03Z","timestamp":1773307383000},"page":"466","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Evolutionary Specializations of the Human Vertebral Body and Intervertebral Disc in Relation to Bipedalism"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5841-6090","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Israel","family":"Hershkovitz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy and Anthropology, Gray Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, 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Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0091-7244","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Einat","family":"Kedar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy and Anthropology, Gray Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Ezra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Nursing Sciences, Academic College of Tel Aviv-Jaffo, Jaffo 6818211, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ian","family":"Rybak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy and Anthropology, Gray Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel"},{"name":"The Shmunis Family Anthropology Institute, Dan David Center for Human Evolution and Biohistory Research, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2203-4239","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tatiana","family":"Sella Tunis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthodontics, The Maurice and Gabriela Goldschleger School of Dental Medicine, Gray Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5943-2751","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Irit","family":"Zohar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology and Environment, University of Haifa, Oranim 3604301, Israel"},{"name":"Marine Biodiversity Center, The Steinhardt Museum of Natural History, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, 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