{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,21]],"date-time":"2026-04-21T10:59:28Z","timestamp":1776769168065,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,29]],"date-time":"2019-04-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1556496000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cement stabilized rammed earth (CRSE) is a sustainable, low energy consuming construction technique which utilizes inorganic soil, usually taken directly from the construction site, with a small addition of Portland cement as a building material. This technology is gaining popularity in various regions of the world, however, there are no uniform standards for designing the composition of the CSRE mixture. The main goal of this article is to propose a complete algorithm for designing CSRE with the use of subsoil obtained from the construction site. The article\u2019s authors propose the use of artificial neural networks (ANN) to determine the proper proportions of soil, cement, and water in a CSRE mixture that provides sufficient compressive strength. The secondary purpose of the paper (supporting the main goal) is to prove that artificial neural networks are suitable for designing CSRE mixtures. For this purpose, compressive strength was tested on several hundred CSRE samples, with different particle sizes, cement content and water additions. The input database was large enough to enable the artificial neural network to produce predictions of high accuracy. The developed algorithm allows us to determine, using relatively simple soil tests, the composition of the mixture ensuring compressive strength at a level that allows the use of this material in construction.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12091396","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,29]],"date-time":"2019-04-29T07:01:22Z","timestamp":1556521282000},"page":"1396","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":64,"title":["Designing the Composition of Cement Stabilized Rammed Earth Using Artificial Neural Networks"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3804-5859","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hubert","family":"Anysz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Civil Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, Al. Armii Ludowej 16, 00-637 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5112-4498","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Piotr","family":"Narloch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Civil Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, Al. Armii Ludowej 16, 00-637 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Minke, G. (2006). Building with Earth. Design and Technology of a Sustainable Architecture, Birkh\u00e4user\u2013Publishers for Architecture."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Gandreau, D., and Delboy, L. (2010). Patrimoine Mondial, Inventaire et Situation des Biens Construits en Terre, CRAterre-ENSAG."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.3846\/13923730.2007.9636423","article-title":"Analysis of th\u0119 fire-protection impregnation influence on wood strength","volume":"13","author":"Bednarek","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Civil Eng. Manag."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2017.03.004","article-title":"Specific structural mechanics that underpinned the construction of Venice and dictated Venetian architecture","volume":"78","author":"Foraboschi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"956","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.03.092","article-title":"The central role played by structural design in enabling the construction of buildings that advanced and revolutionized architecture","volume":"114","author":"Foraboschi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1051\/matecconf\/201711700178","article-title":"Shrinkage characteristics of cement stabilized rammed earth","volume":"117","author":"Woyciechowski","year":"2017","journal-title":"MATEC Web Conf."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"21","article-title":"Konstrukcyjne zastosowanie surowej ziemi jako materia\u0142u budowlanego","volume":"85","author":"Narloch","year":"2014","journal-title":"Przegl\u0105d Bud."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"King, B. (1996). Buildings of Earth and Straw: Structural Design for Rammed Earth and Straw Bale Architecture, Ecological Design Press."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"73","article-title":"Durability assessment of monolithic rammed earth walls","volume":"61","author":"Narloch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch. Civil Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2015.07.049","article-title":"Flexural tensile strength of construction elements made out of cement stabilized rammed earth","volume":"111","author":"Narloch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2005.02.001","article-title":"Durability study of stabilized earth concrete under both laboratory and climatic conditions exposure","volume":"20","author":"Guettala","year":"2006","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Hall, M. (2004). The Mechanisms of Moisture Ingress and Migration in Rammed Earth Walls. [Ph.D. Thesis, Sheffield Hallam University]."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"73","article-title":"The influence of loam type and cement content on the compressive strength of rammed earth","volume":"61","author":"Narloch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch. Civil Eng."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1569","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-012-9998-8","article-title":"Capacity of unreinforced rammed earth walls subject to lateral wind force: Elastic analysis versus ultimate strength analysis","volume":"46","author":"Ciancio","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2011.08.070","article-title":"Experimental investigation on the compressive strength of cored and molded cement-stabilized rammed earth samples","volume":"28","author":"Ciancio","year":"2012","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2012.12.049","article-title":"Advances on the assessment of soil suitability for rammed earth","volume":"42","author":"Ciancio","year":"2013","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1971","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2006.05.049","article-title":"Compressive strength characteristics of cement stabilized rammed earth walls","volume":"21","author":"Jayasinghe","year":"2007","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.3390\/su5020400","article-title":"A Report of Contemporary Rammed Earth Construction and Research in North America","volume":"5","author":"Windstorm","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2003.11.001","article-title":"Rammed earth sample production: Context, recommendations and consistency","volume":"18","author":"Hall","year":"2004","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keable, J. (1996). Rammed Earth Structures: A Code of Practice, Intermediate Technology Publications.","DOI":"10.3362\/9781780440668.000"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Hall, M.R., Lindsay, R., and Krayenhoff, M. (2012). Soil materials for earth construction: Properties, classification and suitability testing. Modern Earth Buildings. Materials, Engineering, Construction and Applications, Woodhead Publishing. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Narloch, P.L. (2017). ZIEMIA Ubijana Stabilizowana Cementem Jako Konstrukcyjny Materia\u0142 Budowlany w Klimacie Umiarkowanym. [Ph.D. Thesis, Warsaw University of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(1998). NZS 4298:1998 Materials and Workmanship for Earth Buildings, Standards New Zealand."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1139\/cgj-2013-0339","article-title":"Effect of compaction water content on the strength of cement-stabilized rammed earth materials","volume":"5","author":"Beckett","year":"2014","journal-title":"Can. Geotech. J."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(1998). NZS 4297:1998 Engineering Design of Earth Buildings, Standards New Zealand."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Zieli\u0144ski, J.S. (2000). Sztuczne sieci neuronowe. Inteligentne Systemy w Zarz\u0105dzaniu, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Duch, W., Korbicz, J., Rutkowski, L., and Tadeusiewicz, R. (2000). Wst\u0119p do sieci neuronowych. Biocybernetyka i In\u017cynieria Medyczna 2000. T. 6 Sieci Neuronowe, Akademicka Oficyna Wydawnicza EXIT. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Anysz, H. (2017). Wykorzystanie Sztucznych Sieci Neuronowych do Oceny Mo\u017cliwo\u015bci Wyst\u0105pienia Op\u00f3\u017anie\u0144 w Realizacji Kontrakt\u00f3w Budowlanych. [Ph.D. Thesis, Warsaw University of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"51","article-title":"Neuro-fuzzy predictions of construction site completion dates","volume":"6","author":"Anysz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Tech. Trans. Civil Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acme.2018.01.014","article-title":"Prediction of site overhead costs with the use of artificial neural network based model","volume":"18","author":"Juszczyk","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch. Civil Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Juszczyk, M., Le\u015bniak, A., and Zima, K. (2018). ANN Based Approach for Estimation of Construction Costs of Sports Fields. Complexity.","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/7952434"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2014.12.082","article-title":"Estimating the Technical Deterioration of Large-panel Residential Buildings Using Artificial Neural Networks","volume":"91","author":"Knyziak","year":"2014","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Anysz, H., Foremny, A., and Kulejewski, J. (2014). Estimating potential losses of the client in public procurement in case of collusion utilizing a MLP neural networks. Tech. Trans. Civil Eng., 105\u2013118."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"W\u0119glarz, A. (2018). Using Artificial Intelligence in energy efficient construction. E3S Web Conf., 49.","DOI":"10.1051\/e3sconf\/20184900125"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2015.07.077","article-title":"How to Meet the Minimum Energy Performance Requirements of Technical Conditions in Year 2021?","volume":"111","year":"2015","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"87","article-title":"Por\u00f3wnanie trafno\u015bci prognoz sztucznych sieci neuronowych MLP z jedn\u0105 i dwoma warstwami ukrytymi na przyk\u0142adzie prognoz wynik\u00f3w finansowych przedsi\u0119biorstw budowlanych","volume":"3","author":"Anysz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Logitrans"},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"898","article-title":"The influence of technological parameters on surface roughness during turning and roughness prediction using artificial neutral networks","volume":"91","author":"Kulisz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mechanik"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pe\u015bko, I., Mu\u0107enski, V., \u015ae\u015blija, M., Radovi\u0107, N., Vujkov, A., Bibi\u0107, D., and Krklje\u015b, M. (2017). Estimation of Costs and Durations of Construction of Urban Roads Using ANN and SVM. Complexity.","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/2450370"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"64","article-title":"A novel approach in modelling of concrete made with recycled aggregates","volume":"115","author":"Paul","year":"2018","journal-title":"Measurements"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2016.08.081","article-title":"The Influence of Input Data Standardization Method on Prediction Accuracy of Artificial Neural Networks","volume":"153","author":"Anysz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2015.07.102","article-title":"Multiple-criteria Analysis of Plasterboard Systems","volume":"111","author":"Kaftanowicz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2019, March 01). Electronic Statistics Textbook. Available online: http:\/\/www.statsoft.pl\/textbook\/stathome_stat.html?http%3A%2F%2Fwww.statsoft.pl%2Ftextbook%2Fstfacan.html."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Hagan, M.T., Demuth, H.B., Beale, M.H., and De Jesus, O. (2016). Neural Network Design, Hagan and Demuth. [2nd ed.]."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/12\/9\/1396\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:47:58Z","timestamp":1760186878000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/12\/9\/1396"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,29]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,5]]}},"alternative-id":["ma12091396"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma12091396","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,29]]}}}