{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,11]],"date-time":"2026-01-11T01:56:25Z","timestamp":1768096585038,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]],"date-time":"2022-01-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1643241600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cranioplasty is a frequently performed procedure after craniectomy and includes several techniques with different materials. Due to high overall complication rates, alloplastic implants are removed in many cases. Lack of implant material osseointegration is often assumed as a reason for failure, but no study has proven this in cranioplasty. This study histologically evaluates the osteointegration of a computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing (CAD\/CAM) titanium scaffold with an open mesh structure used for cranioplasty. A CAD\/CAM titanium scaffold was removed due to late soft tissue complications 7.6 years after cranioplasty. The histological analyses involved the preparation of non-decalcified slices from the scaffold\u2019s inner and outer sides as well as a light-microscopic evaluation, including the quantification of the bone that had formed over the years. Within the scaffold pores, vital connective tissue with both blood vessels and nerves was found. Exclusive bone formation only occurred at the edges of the implant, covering 0.21% of the skin-facing outer surface area. The inner scaffold surface, facing towards the brain, did not show any mineralization at all. Although conventional alloplastic materials for cranioplasty reduce surgery time and provide good esthetic results while mechanically protecting the underlying structures, a lack of adequate stimuli could explain the limited bone formation found. CAD\/CAM porous titanium scaffolds alone insufficiently osseointegrate in such large bone defects of the skull. Future research should investigate alternative routes that enable long-term osteointegration in order to reduce complication rates after cranioplasty. Opportunities could be found in mechano-biologically optimized scaffolds, material modifications, surface coatings, or other routes to sustain bone formation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15030982","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]],"date-time":"2022-01-27T22:00:56Z","timestamp":1643320856000},"page":"982","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Histological Processing of CAD\/CAM Titanium Scaffold after Long-Term Failure in Cranioplasty"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Heilwig","family":"Fischer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Charit\u00e9-Universit\u00e4tsmedizin, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany"},{"name":"Julius Wolff Institute and Berlin Institute of Health Center for Regenerative Therapies, Charit\u00e9-Universit\u00e4tsmedizin Berlin, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4221-4878","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudius","family":"Steffen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Charit\u00e9-Universit\u00e4tsmedizin, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5719-0867","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katharina","family":"Schmidt-Bleek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Julius Wolff Institute and Berlin Institute of Health Center for Regenerative Therapies, Charit\u00e9-Universit\u00e4tsmedizin Berlin, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Georg N.","family":"Duda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Julius Wolff Institute and Berlin Institute of Health Center for Regenerative Therapies, Charit\u00e9-Universit\u00e4tsmedizin Berlin, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4987-2913","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Max","family":"Heiland","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Charit\u00e9-Universit\u00e4tsmedizin, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Carsten","family":"Rendenbach","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Charit\u00e9-Universit\u00e4tsmedizin, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jan-Dirk","family":"Raguse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Fachklinik Hornheide, Dorbaumstra\u00dfe 300, 48157 M\u00fcnster, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1007\/s12028-015-0144-7","article-title":"Complications associated with decompressive craniectomy: A systematic review","volume":"23","author":"Kurland","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurocrit. 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