{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T13:42:29Z","timestamp":1790948549631,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,11]],"date-time":"2022-08-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1660176000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["51805445"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["51805445"]}]},{"name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["52175209"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52175209"]}]},{"name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["191659"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["191659"]}]},{"name":"the Chunhui Plan Cooperative Scientific Research Project of the Ministry of Education of China","award":["51805445"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["51805445"]}]},{"name":"the Chunhui Plan Cooperative Scientific Research Project of the Ministry of Education of China","award":["52175209"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52175209"]}]},{"name":"the Chunhui Plan Cooperative Scientific Research Project of the Ministry of Education of China","award":["191659"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["191659"]}]},{"name":"the Australian Centre for Neutron Scattering","award":["51805445"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["51805445"]}]},{"name":"the Australian Centre for Neutron Scattering","award":["52175209"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52175209"]}]},{"name":"the Australian Centre for Neutron Scattering","award":["191659"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["191659"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cermet coatings deposited using high-velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) are widely used due to their excellent wear and corrosion resistance. The new agglomeration\u2013rapid sintering method is an excellent candidate for the preparation of WC\u2013Co\u2013Cr feedstock powders. In this study, four different WC\u201310Co\u20134Cr feedstock powders containing WC particles of different sizes were prepared by the new agglomeration\u2013rapid sintering method and deposited on steel substrates using the HVOF technique. The microstructures and mechanical properties of the coatings were investigated using scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, nanoindentation, and Vickers indentation. The through-thickness residual stress profiles of the coatings and substrate materials were determined using neutron diffraction. We found that the microstructures and mechanical properties of the coatings were strongly dependent on the WC particle size. Decarburization and anisotropic mechanical behaviors were exhibited in the coatings, especially in the nanostructured coating. The coatings containing nano- and medium-sized WC particles were dense and uniform, with a high Young\u2019s modulus and hardness and the highest fracture toughness among the four coatings. As the WC particle size increased, the compressive stress in the coating increased considerably. Knowledge of these relationships enables the optimization of feedstock powder design to achieve superior mechanical performance of coatings in the future.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15165537","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,11]],"date-time":"2022-08-11T21:15:05Z","timestamp":1660252505000},"page":"5537","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":38,"title":["Influence of WC Particle Size on the Mechanical Properties and Residual Stress of HVOF Thermally Sprayed WC\u201310Co\u20134Cr Coatings"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Kunyang","family":"Fan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Chengdu University, Chengdu 610106, China"},{"name":"Sichuan Province Engineering Technology Research Center of Powder Metallurgy, Chengdu University, Chengdu 610106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4714-221X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wenhuang","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Chengdu University, Chengdu 610106, China"},{"name":"Sichuan Province Engineering Technology Research Center of Powder Metallurgy, Chengdu University, Chengdu 610106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2635-6921","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vladimir","family":"Luzin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Lucas Height, Sydney, NSW 2234, Australia"},{"name":"School of Engineering, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2304, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Taimin","family":"Gong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Powder Metallurgy, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Feng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Chengdu University, Chengdu 610106, China"},{"name":"Sichuan Province Engineering Technology Research Center of Powder Metallurgy, Chengdu University, Chengdu 610106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jesus","family":"Ruiz-Hervias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Materials Science Department, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, Escuela Tecnica Superior de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos, C\/Profesor Aranguren s\/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pingping","family":"Yao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Powder Metallurgy, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfcoat.2014.10.046","article-title":"Thermally sprayed coatings resistant to erosion and corrosion for power plant boilers\u2014A review","volume":"268","author":"Hernas","year":"2015","journal-title":"Surf. Coat. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmhm.2012.01.002","article-title":"Microstructure and cavitation erosion behavior of WC\u2013Co\u2013Cr coating on 1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel by HVOF thermal spraying","volume":"32","author":"Wu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Refract. Met. Hard Mater."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfcoat.2015.11.017","article-title":"Improving the wear resistance of HVOF sprayed WC-Co coatings by adding submicron-sized WC particles at the splats\u2019 interfaces","volume":"285","author":"Yuan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Surf. Coat. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"74","article-title":"Effect of sintering temperature on the properties of rapid agglomerate sintered WC-10Co-4Cr powders and its HVOF coatings","volume":"36","author":"Wei","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wear.2016.05.022","article-title":"Influence of WC carbide particle size on the microstructure and abrasive wear behavior of WC\u201310Co\u20134Cr coatings for aircraft landing gear","volume":"362\u2013363","author":"Gong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfcoat.2009.12.014","article-title":"A study on powder mixing for high fracture toughness and wear resistance of WC\u2013Co\u2013Cr coatings sprayed by HVOF","volume":"204","author":"Lee","year":"2010","journal-title":"Surf. Coat. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmhm.2012.03.014","article-title":"Relationships between feedstock structure, particle parameter, coating deposition, microstructure and properties for thermally sprayed conventional and nanostructured WC\u2013Co","volume":"39","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Refract. Met. Hard Mater."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1361\/105996302770348691","article-title":"Examination of the wear properties of HVOF sprayed nanostructured and conventional WC-Co cermets with different binder phase contents","volume":"11","author":"Dent","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Therm. Spray Technol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"964","DOI":"10.1007\/s11666-010-9480-5","article-title":"Microstructure and Wear Behavior of Conventional and Nanostructured Plasma-Sprayed WC-Co Coatings","volume":"19","author":"Bannier","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Therm. Spray Technol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1016\/S1003-6326(18)64681-3","article-title":"Structure and cavitation erosion behavior of HVOF sprayed multi-dimensional WC\u201310Co4Cr coating","volume":"28","author":"Xiang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"1344","article-title":"Effect of WC Grain Size on the Abrasive Wear Resistance of HVOF Spraying WC-Co Coatings","volume":"97\u2013101","author":"Li","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1016\/S0043-1648(96)07277-8","article-title":"Abrasion resistance of nanostructured and conventional cemented carbides","volume":"200","author":"Jia","year":"1996","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmhm.2017.08.008","article-title":"Influence of carbide grain size and crystal characteristics on the microstructure and mechanical properties of HVOF-sprayed WC-CoCr coatings","volume":"69","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Refract. Met. Hard Mater."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1142\/S021797922040041X","article-title":"Mechanical properties and residual stress of HVOF sprayed nanostructured WC-17Co coatings","volume":"34","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Mod. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scriptamat.2012.02.005","article-title":"Simultaneous strengthening and toughening effects in WC\u2013(nanoWC\u2013Co)","volume":"66","author":"Yang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Scr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfcoat.2006.01.041","article-title":"The enhancement of the properties of WC-Co HVOF coatings through the use of nanostructured and microstructured feedstock powders","volume":"201","author":"Guilemany","year":"2006","journal-title":"Surf. Coat. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126716","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfcoat.2020.126716","article-title":"Process characteristics, particle behavior and coating properties during HVOF spraying of conventional, fine and nanostructured WC-12Co powders","volume":"405","author":"Baumann","year":"2021","journal-title":"Surf. Coat. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfcoat.2008.04.042","article-title":"Characterization and residual stresses of WC\u2013Co thermally sprayed coatings","volume":"202","author":"Santana","year":"2008","journal-title":"Surf. Coat. Technol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2090","DOI":"10.1007\/s11665-012-0134-2","article-title":"Influence of processing parameters on residual stress of high velocity oxy-fuel thermally sprayed WC-Co-Cr coating","volume":"21","author":"Gui","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Mater. Eng. Perform."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2009.10.009","article-title":"Estimation of residual stress and its effects on the mechanical properties of detonation gun sprayed WC\u2013Co coatings","volume":"527","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1115\/1.2647503","article-title":"Residual Strain Measurements in Thermal Spray Cermet Coatings via Neutron Diffraction","volume":"129","author":"Ahmed","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Tribol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfcoat.2012.04.018","article-title":"A comparison of neutron diffraction and hole-drilling residual strain measurements in thermally sprayed coatings","volume":"206","author":"Ahmed","year":"2012","journal-title":"Surf. Coat. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fan, K., Jiang, W., Ruiz-Hervias, J., Baud\u00edn, C., Feng, W., Zhou, H., Bueno, S., and Yao, P. (2021). Effect of Al2TiO5 Content and Sintering Temperature on the Microstructure and Residual Stress of Al2O3-Al2TiO5 Ceramic Composites. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14247624"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfcoat.2006.01.056","article-title":"Dense titanium coatings by modified HVOF spraying","volume":"201","author":"Jin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Surf. Coat. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-5093(98)00724-2","article-title":"Measurement of mechanical properties by ultra-low load indentation","volume":"253","author":"Pharr","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1564","DOI":"10.1557\/JMR.1992.1564","article-title":"An improved technique for determining hardness and elastic modulus using load and displacement sensing indentation experiments","volume":"7","author":"Oliver","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-6160(76)90042-0","article-title":"Quasi-static solid particle damage in brittle solids\u2014I. Observations analysis and implications","volume":"24","author":"Evans","year":"1976","journal-title":"Acta Metall."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfcoat.2015.06.017","article-title":"A comparative study on the microstructure and surface property evaluation of coatings produced from nanostructured and conventional WC-Co powders HVOF-sprayed on Al7075","volume":"276","author":"Lekatou","year":"2015","journal-title":"Surf. Coat. Technol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1080\/10448630903241175","article-title":"The Strain-Scanning Diffractometer Kowari","volume":"20","author":"Kirstein","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neutron News"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/MSF.905.165","article-title":"Neutron Through-Thickness Stress Measurements in Coatings with High Spatial Resolution","volume":"905","author":"Luzin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Forum"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/MSF.571-572.315","article-title":"Through-Thickness Residual Stress Measurement in Metal and Ceramic Spray Coatings by Neutron Diffraction","volume":"571\u2013572","author":"Luzin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Forum"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1107\/S0021889812014252","article-title":"ISODEC: Software for calculating diffraction elastic constants","volume":"45","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Appl. Crystallogr."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2015.07.144","article-title":"Sliding wear behavior of nanostructured WC-Co-Cr coatings","volume":"355","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/S0043-1648(02)00294-6","article-title":"Effect of carbide grain size on microstructure and sliding wear behavior of HVOF-sprayed WC\u201312% Co coatings","volume":"254","author":"Yang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfcoat.2015.12.016","article-title":"Microstructural and mechanical properties of advanced HVOF-sprayed WC-based cermet coatings","volume":"286","author":"Nahvi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Surf. Coat. Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmhm.2017.08.012","article-title":"Influences of the compositions and mechanical properties of HVOF sprayed bimodal WC-Co coating on its high temperature wear performance","volume":"69","author":"Mi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Refract. Met. Hard Mater."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02647520","article-title":"Formation of an amorphous phase in thermally sprayed WC-Co","volume":"5","author":"Li","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Therm. Spray Technol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1007\/s11666-012-9881-8","article-title":"Influence of Parameter Variations on WC-Co Splat Formation in an HVOF Process Using a New Beam-Shutter Device","volume":"22","author":"Tillmann","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Therm. Spray Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100713","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtla.2020.100713","article-title":"Nanomechanical Behaviour of Individual Phases in WC-Co Cemented Carbides, from Ambient to High Temperature","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Materialia"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18700","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceramint.2016.09.008","article-title":"Determination of mechanical properties of Al2O3\/Y-TZP ceramic composites: Influence of testing method and residual stresses","volume":"42","author":"Fan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ceram. Int."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/0025-5416(78)90163-5","article-title":"Hardness and deformation of cemented tungsten carbide","volume":"33","author":"Lee","year":"1978","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1179\/174329408X326380","article-title":"Mechanical properties and microstructure of WC\u201310Co\u20134Cr and WC\u201312Co thermal spray coatings deposited by HVOF","volume":"24","author":"Santana","year":"2008","journal-title":"Surf. Eng."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfcoat.2011.03.012","article-title":"Hardness and Young\u2019s modulus distributions in atmospheric plasma sprayed WC\u2013Co coatings using nanoindentation","volume":"205","author":"Bonache","year":"2011","journal-title":"Surf. Coat. Technol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2935","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2010.01.026","article-title":"Nanoindentation study of WC\u201312Co hardmetals obtained from nanocrystalline powders: Evaluation of hardness and modulus on individual phases","volume":"527","author":"Bonache","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2015.09.214","article-title":"First-principles calculations of the phase stability and the elastic and mechanical properties of \u03b7-phases in the WC\u2013Co system","volume":"656","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Alloy. Compd."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1098","DOI":"10.1007\/s11666-011-9618-0","article-title":"Effects of Particle Strength of Feedstock Powders on Properties of Warm-Sprayed WC-Co Coatings","volume":"20","author":"Chivavibul","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Therm. Spray Technol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2014.09.081","article-title":"Improvement on mechanical properties and wear resistance of HVOF sprayed WC-12Co coatings by optimizing feedstock structure","volume":"320","author":"Ma","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1179\/026708301101509980","article-title":"Residual stress. Part 1\u2013measurement techniques","volume":"17","author":"Withers","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfcoat.2021.127359","article-title":"Mechanical performance and residual stress of WC-Co coatings manufactured by Kinetic Metallization\u2122","volume":"421","author":"Meghwal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Surf. Coat. Technol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/S0040-6090(97)00199-5","article-title":"An analytical model for predicting residual stresses in progressively deposited coatings Part 1: Planar geometry","volume":"306","author":"Clyne","year":"1997","journal-title":"Thin Solid Film."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsf.2013.08.075","article-title":"Performance characterization of metallic substrates coated by HVOF WC-Co","volume":"549","author":"Venter","year":"2013","journal-title":"Thin Solid Film."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfcoat.2003.06.003","article-title":"Residual stress in HVOF thermally sprayed thick deposits","volume":"177","author":"Stokes","year":"2004","journal-title":"Surf. Coat. Technol."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/15\/16\/5537\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:07:28Z","timestamp":1760141248000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/15\/16\/5537"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,11]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ma15165537"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma15165537","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,11]]}}}