{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]],"date-time":"2026-09-19T16:55:40Z","timestamp":1789836940789,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,13]],"date-time":"2022-10-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1665619200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Science and Technology Council, Taiwan","award":["NSTC-107-2221-E-009-007-MY3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NSTC-107-2221-E-009-007-MY3"]}]},{"name":"National Science and Technology Council, Taiwan","award":["NSTC 111-2634-F-A49-008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NSTC 111-2634-F-A49-008"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this study, symmetrical solder joints (Cu\/Ni\/SnAg2.3\/Ni\/Cu) were fabricated. They were electromigration (EM)-stressed at high (8 \u00d7 104 A\/cm2) or low (1.6 \u00d7 104 A\/cm2) current densities. Failures in the solder joints with different grain orientations under EM stressing were then characterized. Results show that Ni under-bump-metallurgy (UBM) was quickly dissolved into the solder joints possessing low angles between Sn c-axis and electron direction and massive NiCuSn intermetallic compounds formed in the Sn matrix. The diffusion rate of Ni increased with decreasing orientation grain angle. A theoretical model was also established to analyze the consumption rate of Ni UBM. Good agreement between the modeling and experimental results was obtained. Additionally, we found that voids were more likely to form in the solder joints under high EM stressing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15207115","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,13]],"date-time":"2022-10-13T22:21:11Z","timestamp":1665699671000},"page":"7115","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Effect of Tin Grain Orientation on Electromigration-Induced Dissolution of Ni Metallization in SnAg Solder Joints"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Po-Ning","family":"Hsu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dai-Lung","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2893-2291","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dinh-Phuc","family":"Tran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0482-001X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kai-Cheng","family":"Shie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nien-Ti","family":"Tsou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6235-2827","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chih","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microrel.2009.01.006","article-title":"Recent advances on kinetic analysis of electromigration enhanced intermetallic growth and damage formation in Pb-free solder joints","volume":"49","author":"Chao","year":"2009","journal-title":"Microelectron. Reliab."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"259","article-title":"Electromigration issues in lead-free solder joints","volume":"18","author":"Chen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Lead-Free. Electron. Solder."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02701847","article-title":"Electromigration in solder joints and solder lines","volume":"54","author":"Gan","year":"2002","journal-title":"JOM"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1007\/s11664-005-0176-4","article-title":"Electromigration-induced failure in flip-chip solder joints","volume":"34","author":"Lin","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Electron. Mater."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yoon, S.W., Shiozaki, K., Yasuda, S., and Glover, M.D. (2012, January 5\u20139). Highly reliable nickel-tin transient liquid phase bonding technology for high temperature operational power electronics in electrified vehicles. Proceedings of the 2012 Twenty-Seventh Annual IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC), Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/APEC.2012.6165863"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7827","DOI":"10.1007\/s10854-017-6479-4","article-title":"Cu\u2013Sn and Ni\u2013Sn transient liquid phase bonding for die-attach technology applications in high-temperature power electronics packaging","volume":"28","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Electron."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.1109\/TCPMT.2013.2253353","article-title":"High temperature interconnect and die attach technology: Au\u2013Sn SLID bonding","volume":"3","author":"Tollefsen","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Compon. Packag. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02659912","article-title":"Interfacial reactions during soldering with lead-tin eutectic and lead (Pb)-free, tin-rich solders","volume":"25","author":"Kang","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Electron. Mater."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1469","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.53.1469","article-title":"Extreme fast-diffusion system: Nickel in single-crystal tin","volume":"53","author":"Yeh","year":"1984","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matlet.2018.10.112","article-title":"Effect of Sn grain orientation on growth of Cu-Sn intermetallic compounds during thermomigration in Cu-Sn2. 3Ag-Ni microbumps","volume":"236","author":"Shen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actamat.2014.08.029","article-title":"Effects of anisotropic \u03b2-Sn alloys on Cu diffusion under a temperature gradient","volume":"81","author":"Hsu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Mater."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actamat.2021.117168","article-title":"Quasi-in-situ observation on diffusion anisotropy dominated asymmetrical growth of Cu-Sn IMCs under temperature gradient","volume":"217","author":"Qiao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Mater."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2019.01.384","article-title":"Microstructure evolution and grain orientation of IMC in Cu-Sn TLP bonding solder joints","volume":"786","author":"Sun","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Alloy. Compd."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mo, C.-C., Tran, D.-P., Juang, J.-Y., and Chen, C. (2021). Effect of Intermetallic Compound Bridging on the Cracking Resistance of Sn2. 3Ag Microbumps with Different UBM Structures under Thermal Cycling. Metals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/met11071065"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1465","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02655465","article-title":"The effect of soldering process variables on the microstructure and mechanical properties of eutectic Sn-Ag\/Cu solder joints","volume":"24","author":"Yang","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Electron. Mater."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5665","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1616993","article-title":"Mean-time-to-failure study of flip chip solder joints on Cu\/Ni (V)\/Al thin-film under-bump-metallization","volume":"94","author":"Choi","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1194","DOI":"10.1007\/s11664-000-0012-9","article-title":"Reactions of lead-free solders with CuNi metallizations","volume":"29","author":"Korhonen","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Electron. Mater."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/S0927-796X(02)00007-4","article-title":"Six cases of reliability study of Pb-free solder joints in electronic packaging technology","volume":"38","author":"Zeng","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. R Rep."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1007\/s11664-001-0139-3","article-title":"Morphological stability of solder reaction products in flip chip technology","volume":"30","author":"Tu","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Electron. Mater."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16027","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.53.16027","article-title":"Kinetic analysis of the soldering reaction between eutectic SnPb alloy and Cu accompanied by ripening","volume":"53","author":"Kim","year":"1996","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Okamoto, H., and Massalski, T. (1990). Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams, ASM International."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scriptamat.2011.10.032","article-title":"Elimination of voids in reactions between Ni and Sn: A novel effect of silver","volume":"66","author":"Chuang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Scr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1007\/s11664-014-3516-4","article-title":"Effect of the silver content of SnAgCu solder on the interfacial reaction and on the reliability of angle joints fabricated by laser-jet soldering","volume":"44","author":"Ji","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Electron. Mater."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2014.03.165","article-title":"Effects of silver addition on Cu\u2013Sn microjoints for chip-stacking applications","volume":"605","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Alloy. Compd."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Che, F., Luan, J., and Baraton, X. (2008, January 27\u201330). Effect of silver content and nickel dopant on mechanical properties of Sn-Ag-based solders. Proceedings of the 2008 58th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, Lake Buena Vista, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ECTC.2008.4550016"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2015.05.023","article-title":"Effect of silver (Ag) nanoparticle size on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Sn58Bi\u2013Ag composite solders","volume":"645","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Alloy. Compd."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1527","DOI":"10.1007\/s11664-003-0125-z","article-title":"Effect of silver content on thermal fatigue life of Sn-xAg-0.5 Cu flip-chip interconnects","volume":"32","author":"Terashima","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Electron. Mater."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2012.10.008","article-title":"Finite element analysis of the effect of silver content for Sn\u2013Ag\u2013Cu alloy compositions on thermal cycling reliability of solder die attach","volume":"28","author":"Otiaba","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1007\/s11664-004-0138-2","article-title":"Effect of silver content on the shear fatigue properties of Sn-Ag-Cu flip-chip interconnects","volume":"33","author":"Kariya","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Electron. Mater."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matchemphys.2012.02.074","article-title":"Precipitation of large Ag3Sn intermetallic compounds in SnAg2. 5 microbumps after multiple reflows in 3D-IC packaging","volume":"134","author":"Yang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mater. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6359","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1321787","article-title":"Morphology of interfacial reaction between lead-free solders and electroless Ni\u2013P under bump metallization","volume":"88","author":"Jang","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1108\/09540910810902651","article-title":"Effect of Ag content on the microstructure of Sn-Ag-Cu based solder alloys","volume":"20","author":"Reid","year":"2008","journal-title":"Solder. Surf. Mt. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2015.01.001","article-title":"Optimal Ag addition for the elimination of voids in Ni\/SnAg\/Ni micro joints for 3D IC applications","volume":"629","author":"Yu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Alloy. Compd."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmatprotec.2021.117303","article-title":"Microstructure, properties, and formation mechanisms of tungsten\/steel hot isostatic pressing diffusion bonding joint utilizing a Ni-Si-B interlayer","volume":"299","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Mater. Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128642","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matlet.2020.128642","article-title":"Diffusion reaction-induced microstructure and strength evolution of Cu joints bonded with Sn-based solder containing Ni-foam","volume":"281","author":"He","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2021.161221","article-title":"Diffusion anisotropy induced uneven regional growth of Cu6Sn5 IMC in Cu\/SAC305\/Cu micro solder joints under temperature gradient","volume":"886","author":"Qiao","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Alloy. Compd."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"044509","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2000667","article-title":"Three-dimensional simulation on current-density distribution in flip-chip solder joints under electric current stressing","volume":"98","author":"Shao","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211909","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2936996","article-title":"Effect of Sn grain orientation on electromigration degradation mechanism in high Sn-based Pb-free solders","volume":"92","author":"Lu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/15\/20\/7115\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:53:20Z","timestamp":1760144000000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/15\/20\/7115"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,13]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]}},"alternative-id":["ma15207115"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma15207115","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,13]]}}}