{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T15:40:16Z","timestamp":1784130016600,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]],"date-time":"2023-01-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1673481600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Central Mining Institute Statutory Work","award":["11184011-160"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11184011-160"]}]},{"name":"Central Mining Institute Statutory Work","award":["DEC-1\/2020\/IDUB\/II.1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DEC-1\/2020\/IDUB\/II.1"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006190","name":"Gdansk University of Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["11184011-160"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11184011-160"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006190","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006190","name":"Gdansk University of Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DEC-1\/2020\/IDUB\/II.1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DEC-1\/2020\/IDUB\/II.1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006190","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The rapid development of the building sector has created increased demand for novel materials and technologies, while on the other hand resulting in the generation of a severe amount of waste materials. Among these are polyurethane (PU) foams, which are commonly applied as thermal insulation materials. Their management is a serious industrial problem, due to, for example, their complex chemical composition. Although some chemical and thermochemical methods of PU foam recycling are known, their broader use is limited due to requirements related to the complexity and safety of their installation, thus implicating high costs. Therefore, material recycling poses a promising alternative. The incorporation of waste PU foams as fillers for polymer composites could make it possible to take advantage of their structure and performance. Herein, polypropylene-based composites that were highly filled with waste PU foam and modified using foaming agents were prepared and analyzed. Depending on the foam loading and the foaming agent applied, the apparent density of material was reduced by as much as 68%. The efficient development of a porous structure, confirmed by scanning electron microscopy and high-resolution computed micro-tomography, enabled a 64% decrease in the thermal conductivity coefficient. The foaming of the structure affected the mechanical performance of composites, resulting in a deterioration of their tensile and compressive performance. Therefore, developing samples of the analyzed composites with the desired performance would require identifying the proper balance between mechanical strength and economic, as well as ecological (share of waste material in composite, apparent density of material), considerations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16020782","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,13]],"date-time":"2023-01-13T02:57:33Z","timestamp":1673578653000},"page":"782","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["One More Step towards a Circular Economy for Thermal Insulation Materials\u2014Development of Composites Highly Filled with Waste Polyurethane (PU) Foam for Potential Use in the Building Industry"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"\u0141ukasz","family":"Kowalczyk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Mining Institute, Department of Material Engineering, Pl. Gwarkow 1, 40-166 Katowice, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5853-9565","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jerzy","family":"Korol","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Mining Institute, Department of Material Engineering, Pl. Gwarkow 1, 40-166 Katowice, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"B\u0142a\u017cej","family":"Chmielnicki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"\u0141ukasiewicz Research Network\u2013Institute of Engineering of Polymer Materials and Dyes, Center for Paints and Plastics, ul. Chorzowska 50A, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4872-3959","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aleksandra","family":"Laska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Ship Technology and EkoTech Center, Gda\u0144sk University of Technology, 80-233 Gda\u0144sk, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6368-6810","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel","family":"Chuchala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Ship Technology and EkoTech Center, Gda\u0144sk University of Technology, 80-233 Gda\u0144sk, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9125-6164","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aleksander","family":"Hejna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Materials Technology, Poznan University of Technology, Piotrowo 3, 60-965 Pozna\u0144, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trechm.2019.03.004","article-title":"Future Directions for Sustainable Polymers","volume":"1","author":"Hong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Chem."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1347","DOI":"10.1002\/pol.20190261","article-title":"Advances and Approaches for Chemical Recycling of Plastic Waste","volume":"58","author":"Thiounn","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-03149-9","article-title":"Closed-Loop Recycling of Polyethylene-like Materials","volume":"590","author":"Eck","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11145","DOI":"10.1021\/acssuschemeng.8b02355","article-title":"Approaches to Sustainable and Continually Recyclable Cross-Linked Polymers","volume":"6","author":"Fortman","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5691","DOI":"10.1039\/D2GC00368F","article-title":"Closed-Loop Chemical Recycling of Thermosetting Polymers and Their Applications: A Review","volume":"24","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Green Chem."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"135","article-title":"Composites of Rigid Polyurethane Foam and Shredded Car Window Glass Particles\u2014Structure and Mechanical Properties","volume":"21","author":"Olszowska","year":"2021","journal-title":"Compos. Theory Pract."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"77","article-title":"Modification of Polyurethane Viscoelastic Foams by Functionalized Polyhedral Oligomeric Silsesquioxanes (POSS)","volume":"18","author":"Bukowczan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Compos. Theory Pract."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"23","article-title":"Foaming Extrusion of Thermoplastic Polyurethane Modified by POSS Nanofillers","volume":"19","author":"Stachak","year":"2019","journal-title":"Compos. Theory Pract."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"244","article-title":"Assessment of Sound Absorbing Properties of Polyurethane Sandwich System","volume":"16","author":"Nowacki","year":"2016","journal-title":"Compos. Theory Pract."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"158","article-title":"Evaluation of Mechanical Properties of Polymer Sandwich Systems Used for Noise Reduction Purposes","volume":"15","author":"Nowacki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Compos. Theory Pract."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Augaitis, N., Vaitkus, S., Cz\u0142onka, S., and Kairyt\u0117, A. (2020). Research of Wood Waste as a Potential Filler for Loose-Fill Building Insulation: Appropriate Selection and Incorporation into Polyurethane Biocomposite Foams. Materials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13235336"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.04.102","article-title":"Traditional, State-of-the-Art and Renewable Thermal Building Insulation Materials: An Overview","volume":"214","author":"Mourad","year":"2019","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kura\u0144ska, M., Barczewski, R., Barczewski, M., Prociak, A., and Polaczek, K. (2020). Thermal Insulation and Sound Absorption Properties of Open-Cell Polyurethane Foams Modified with Bio-Polyol Based on Used Cooking Oil. Materials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13245673"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymer.2018.06.077","article-title":"Synthesis and Characterization of Sustainable Polyurethane Foams Based on Polyhydroxyls with Different Terminal Groups","volume":"149","author":"Stanzione","year":"2018","journal-title":"Polymer"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180536","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.180536","article-title":"Synthesis and Structure\/Properties Characterizations of Four Polyurethane Model Hard Segments","volume":"5","author":"Jiang","year":"2018","journal-title":"R. Soc. Open Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compscitech.2020.108153","article-title":"Polyurethane Composite Foams Including CaCO3 Fillers for Enhanced Sound Absorption and Compression Properties","volume":"194","author":"Choe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Compos Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111527","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2020.111527","article-title":"Reviewing the Thermo-Chemical Recycling of Waste Polyurethane Foam","volume":"278","author":"Deng","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manage."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1634","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2013.08.011","article-title":"New Insights into Polyurethane Biodegradation and Realistic Prospects for the Development of a Sustainable Waste Recycling Process","volume":"31","author":"Cregut","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Adv."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105713","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2021.105713","article-title":"Development of High-Performance Thermoplastic Composites Based on Polyurethane and Ground Tire Rubber by in-Situ Synthesis","volume":"173","author":"He","year":"2021","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reactfunctpolym.2007.05.004","article-title":"Methods for Polyurethane and Polyurethane Composites, Recycling and Recovery: A Review","volume":"67","author":"Zia","year":"2007","journal-title":"React. Funct. Polym."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1007\/s10973-012-2530-0","article-title":"Effect of glycols used as glycolysis agents on chemical structure and thermal stability of the produced glycolysates","volume":"109","author":"Datta","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Therm. Anal. Calorim."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2020.125102","article-title":"Recycling of polyurethane scraps via acidolysis","volume":"395","author":"Gama","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kemona, A., and Piotrowska, M. (2020). Polyurethane Recycling and Disposal: Methods and Prospects. Polymers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym12081752"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2676","DOI":"10.1080\/09593330.2014.918180","article-title":"Glycolysis Recycling of Rigid Waste Polyurethane Foam from Refrigerators","volume":"35","author":"Zhu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2019.04.112","article-title":"Experimental Analysis of Waste Polyurethane from Household Appliances and Its Utilization Possibilities","volume":"243","author":"Kucbel","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manage"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2020.111638","article-title":"Assessment of the Economic Recycling Potential of a Glycolysis Treatment of Rigid Polyurethane Foam Waste: A Case Study from Thailand","volume":"280","author":"Kanchanapiya","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manage"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"e00330","article-title":"Recycling of Different Types of Polyurethane Foam Wastes via Acidolysis to Produce Polyurethane Coatings","volume":"29","author":"Godinho","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sustain. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kiss, G., Rusu, G., Peter, F., T\u0103nase, I., and Bandur, G. (2020). Recovery of Flexible Polyurethane Foam Waste for Efficient Reuse in Industrial Formulations. Polymers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym12071533"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47916","DOI":"10.1002\/app.47916","article-title":"Sustainable Rigid Polyurethane Foams Based on Recycled Polyols from Chemical Recycling of Waste Polyurethane Foams","volume":"136","author":"Shin","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ginga, C.P., Ongpeng, J.M.C., and Daly, M.K.M. (2020). Circular Economy on Construction and Demolition Waste: A Literature Review on Material Recovery and Production. Materials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13132970"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/s42824-020-00012-0","article-title":"Polymer Recycling in Additive Manufacturing: An Opportunity for the Circular Economy","volume":"2","author":"Shanmugam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Circ. Econ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kosmela, P., Olszewski, A., Zedler, \u0141., Burger, P., Piasecki, A., Formela, K., and Hejna, A. (2021). Ground Tire Rubber Filled Flexible Polyurethane Foam\u2014Effect of Waste Rubber Treatment on Composite Performance. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14143807"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u017bukowska, W., Kosmela, P., Wojtasz, P., Szczepa\u0144ski, M., Piasecki, A., Barczewski, R., Barczewski, M., and Hejna, A. (2022). Comprehensive Enhancement of Prepolymer-Based Flexible Polyurethane Foams\u2019 Performance by Introduction of Cost-Effective Waste-Based Ground Tire Rubber Particles. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15165728"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1177\/026248931503400201","article-title":"Rigid Polyurethane Foams Modified with Ground Tire Rubber\u2014Mechanical, Morphological and Thermal Studies","volume":"34","author":"Piszczyk","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell. Polym."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3750","DOI":"10.1002\/pat.5827","article-title":"Vitrimerization of Rigid Thermoset Polyurethane Foams: A Mechanochemical Method to Recycle and Reprocess Thermosets","volume":"33","author":"Bandegi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Polym. Adv. Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1163\/138577211X587618","article-title":"Polyurethane Waste Reduction and Recycling: From Bench to Pilot Scales","volume":"14","author":"Nikje","year":"2011","journal-title":"Des. Monomers Polym."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49095","DOI":"10.1002\/app.49095","article-title":"Recycling of Rigid Polyurethane Foam: Micro-milled Powder Used as Active Filler in Polyurethane Adhesives","volume":"137","author":"Beran","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jin, F.-L., Zhao, M., Park, M., and Park, S.-J. (2019). Recent Trends of Foaming in Polymer Processing: A Review. Polymers, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym11060953"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Doyle, L., Weidlich, I., and di Maio, E. (2022). Developing Insulating Polymeric Foams: Strategies and Research Needs from a Circular Economy Perspective. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15186212"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gama, N., Ferreira, A., and Barros-Timmons, A. (2018). Polyurethane Foams: Past, Present, and Future. Materials, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma11101841"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matlet.2015.07.055","article-title":"Preparation of Polymeric Foams with a Pore Size Gradient via Thermally Induced Phase Separation (TIPS)","volume":"160","author":"Mannella","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpolymj.2015.01.039","article-title":"Nanocellular Polymer Foams as Promising High Performance Thermal Insulation Materials","volume":"65","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Polym. J."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111576","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2019.111576","article-title":"Investigating the Feasibility of a New Testing Method for GFRP\/Polymer Foam Sandwich Composites Used in Railway Passenger Vehicles","volume":"233","author":"Robinson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Compos Struct."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymer.2014.09.021","article-title":"Silk Cocoons as Natural Macro-Balloon Fillers in Novel Polyurethane-Based Syntactic Foams","volume":"56","author":"Shah","year":"2015","journal-title":"Polymer"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11579","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-021-06034-6","article-title":"A Review of Thermoplastic Polymer Foams for Functional Applications","volume":"56","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karger-Kocsis, J., and B\u00e1r\u00e1ny, T. (2019). Polypropylene Handbook, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-12903-3"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1177\/026248931503400602","article-title":"Current Issues and Challenges in Polypropylene Foaming: A Review","volume":"34","author":"Mohebbi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell. Polym."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Z\u00e1lesk\u00e1, M., Pavl\u00edkov\u00e1, M., Jankovsk\u00fd, O., Lojka, M., Piv\u00e1k, A., and Pavl\u00edk, Z. (2018). Experimental Analysis of MOC Composite with a Waste-Expanded Polypropylene-Based Aggregate. Materials, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma11060931"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pavl\u00edk, Z., Pavl\u00edkov\u00e1, M., and Z\u00e1lesk\u00e1, M. (2019). Properties of Concrete with Plastic Polypropylene Aggregates. Use of Recycled Plastics in Eco-efficient Concrete, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-08-102676-2.00009-8"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39168","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-021-13418-3","article-title":"Production of Eco-Friendly Concrete Incorporating Rice Husk Ash and Polypropylene Fibres","volume":"28","author":"Memon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"e01352","article-title":"Mechanical Properties of Fully Recycled Coarse Aggregate Concrete with Polypropylene Fiber","volume":"17","author":"Ye","year":"2022","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012002","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/371\/1\/012002","article-title":"Effect of Waste Expanded Polypropylene-Based Aggregate on Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Lightweight Concrete","volume":"371","year":"2018","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1694","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesa.2011.07.024","article-title":"Assessing the Life Cycle Costs and Environmental Performance of Lightweight Materials in Automobile Applications","volume":"42","author":"Witik","year":"2011","journal-title":"Compos Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1108\/13552541311302978","article-title":"Distributed Recycling of Waste Polymer into RepRap Feedstock","volume":"19","author":"Baechler","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rapid Prototyp. J."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Vilar, W.D. (1998). Qu\u00edmica e Tecnologia Dos Poliuretanos, Vilar Consultoria T\u00e9cnica Ltda. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpba.2005.02.017","article-title":"Analysis of the Acid\u2013Base Reaction between Solid Indomethacin and Sodium Bicarbonate Using Infrared Spectroscopy, X-Ray Powder Diffraction, and Solid-State Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy","volume":"38","author":"Chen","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal."},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"3709","article-title":"Thermal Decomposition of Solid Sodium Bicarbonate","volume":"82","author":"Ball","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans. 1 Phys. Chem. Condens. Phases"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tca.2017.11.007","article-title":"Dsc Studies on the Decomposition of Chemical Blowing Agents Based on Citric Acid and Sodium Bicarbonate","volume":"659","author":"Sadik","year":"2018","journal-title":"Thermochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45201","DOI":"10.1002\/app.45201","article-title":"Effects of Compatibility on Foaming Behavior of Polypropylene\/Polyolefin Elastomer Blends Prepared Using a Chemical Blowing Agent","volume":"134","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olszewski, A., Kosmela, P., Piasecki, A., \u017bukowska, W., Szczepa\u0144ski, M., Wojtasz, P., Barczewski, M., Barczewski, R., and Hejna, A. (2022). Comprehensive Investigation of Stoichiometry\u2013Structure\u2013Performance Relationships in Flexible Polyurethane Foams. Polymers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14183813"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"708","DOI":"10.1177\/0731684415579089","article-title":"Polyurethane\/Ground Tire Rubber Composite Foams Based on Polyglycerol: Processing, Mechanical and Thermal Properties","volume":"34","author":"Piszczyk","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Reinf. Plast. Compos."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1854","DOI":"10.1007\/s10924-017-1086-2","article-title":"Structure, Mechanical, Thermal and Fire Behavior Assessments of Environmentally Friendly Crude Glycerol-Based Rigid Polyisocyanurate Foams","volume":"26","author":"Hejna","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Polym. Environ."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olszewski, A., Kosmela, P., \u017bukowska, W., Wojtasz, P., Szczepa\u0144ski, M., Barczewski, M., Zedler, \u0141., Formela, K., and Hejna, A. (2022). Insights into Stoichiometry Adjustments Governing the Performance of Flexible Foamed Polyurethane\/Ground Tire Rubber Composites. Polymers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14183838"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hejna, A., Olszewski, A., Zedler, \u0141., Kosmela, P., and Formela, K. (2021). The Impact of Ground Tire Rubber Oxidation with H2O2 and KMnO4 on the Structure and Performance of Flexible Polyurethane\/Ground Tire Rubber Composite Foams. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14030499"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2020.110323","article-title":"A comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) of different insulation materials for buildings in the continental Mediterranean climate","volume":"225","author":"Llantoy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energ. Buildings"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109406","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymdegradstab.2020.109406","article-title":"High Thermal Insulation and Compressive Strength Polypropylene Microcellular Foams with Honeycomb Structure","volume":"183","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Polym. Degrad. Stab."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0887-381X(2008)22:4(103)","article-title":"High-Performance Vacuum Insulation Panel: Development of Alternative Core Materials","volume":"22","author":"Mukhopadhyaya","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Cold Reg. Eng."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2016.12.057","article-title":"Experimental Study of the Thermal Conductivity of Polyurethane Foams","volume":"115","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1007\/s10965-019-1974-3","article-title":"Modified Polypropylene\/ Thermoplastic Polyurethane Blends with Maleic-Anhydride Grafted Polypropylene: Blending Morphology and Mechanical Behaviors","volume":"27","author":"Lin","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Polym. Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1007\/s10965-013-0201-x","article-title":"Nanoclay Effect on Transport Properties of Thermoplastic Polyurethane\/Polypropylene (TPU\/PP) Blends","volume":"20","author":"Kannan","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Polym. Res."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hejna, A., Barczewski, M., Andrzejewski, J., Kosmela, P., Piasecki, A., Szostak, M., and Kuang, T. (2020). Rotational Molding of Linear Low-Density Polyethylene Composites Filled with Wheat Bran. Polymers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym12051004"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1671","DOI":"10.1002\/pc.22820","article-title":"Studies on Electrical Properties of Nanoclay Filled Thermoplastic Polyurethane\/Polypropylene Blends","volume":"35","author":"Kannan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Polym. Compos."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1878","DOI":"10.1002\/pen.21703","article-title":"Preparation and Characterization of Nanoclay-Filled Polyurethane\/Polypropylene Blends","volume":"50","author":"Kannan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Polym. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11228","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.macromol.1c02047","article-title":"Unexpected Random Copolymerization of Propylene Oxide with Glycidyl Methyl Ether via Double Metal Cyanide Catalysis: Introducing Polarity in Polypropylene Oxide","volume":"54","author":"Matthes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Macromolecules"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, F., Lu, M., Zhou, S., Lu, Z., and Ran, S. (2019). Effect of Fiber Surface Modification on the Interfacial Adhesion and Thermo-Mechanical Performance of Unidirectional Epoxy-Based Composites Reinforced with Bamboo Fibers. Molecules, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules24152682"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiec.2017.02.024","article-title":"Enhanced Interfacial Adhesion between Polypropylene and Carbon Fiber by Graphene Oxide\/Polyethyleneimine Coating","volume":"51","author":"Luo","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Ind. Eng. Chem."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1002\/app.2271","article-title":"Interfacial Adhesion Reaction of Polyethylene and Starch Blends Using Maleated Polyethylene Reactive Compatibilizer","volume":"83","author":"Yoo","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.supflu.2016.01.016","article-title":"Tensile and Impact Properties of Microcellular Isotactic Polypropylene (PP) Foams Obtained by Supercritical Carbon Dioxide","volume":"111","author":"Bao","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Supercrit. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Korol, J., Hejna, A., Wypi\u00f3r, K., Mijalski, K., and Chmielnicka, E. (2021). Wastes from Agricultural Silage Film Recycling Line as a Potential Polymer Materials. Polymers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym13091383"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong, W., Wang, X., Jiang, Z., Tian, B., Liu, Y., Yang, J., and Zhou, W. (2019). Acetylated SEBS Enhanced DC Insulation Performances of Polyethylene. Polymers, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym11061033"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/0032-3950(65)90076-6","article-title":"The Mechanism of the Nucleation Effect of Solid Particles in Crystallizing Polymers","volume":"7","author":"Kargin","year":"1965","journal-title":"Polym. Sci. U.S.S.R."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lima, P.S., Trocolli, R., Wellen, R.M.R., Rojo, L., Lopez-Manchado, M.A., Fook, M.V.L., and Silva, S.M.L. (2019). HDPE\/Chitosan Composites Modified with PE-g-MA. Thermal, Morphological and Antibacterial Analysis. Polymers, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym11101559"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2093","DOI":"10.1021\/ie020950o","article-title":"Thermal and Hydrolytic Decomposition of Urea for Automotive Selective Catalytic Reduction Systems: Thermochemical and Practical Aspects","volume":"42","author":"Koebel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ind. Eng. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E71","DOI":"10.1002\/pen.24962","article-title":"Application of the Basalt Powder as a Filler for Polypropylene Composites With Improved Thermo-Mechanical Stability and Reduced Flammability","volume":"59","author":"Barczewski","year":"2019","journal-title":"Polym. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1177\/026248931603500601","article-title":"Foamed Polyurethane Composites with Different Types of Ash\u2014Morphological, Mechanical and Thermal Behavior Assessments","volume":"35","author":"Hejna","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell. Polym."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/16\/2\/782\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:04:49Z","timestamp":1760119489000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/16\/2\/782"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]]},"references-count":85,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ma16020782"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma16020782","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]]}}}