{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T12:54:17Z","timestamp":1790859257691,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,15]],"date-time":"2023-01-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1673740800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Research and Technology Deputy of Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran","award":["97-01-36-17198"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["97-01-36-17198"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The rampant increase in antibiotic resistance has created a global barrier to the treatment of multidrug-resistant infections. Biogenic synthesis of nanomaterials is a novel approach to producing nanostructures with biological resources. Algae are known to be clean, nontoxic, cost-beneficial, and environmentally acceptable. Chlorella vulgaris is a popular microalga for its broad applications in food, supplements, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics. In this study, we used Chlorella vulgaris biomass lyophilized powder as our green resource for the biosynthesis ZnONPs. Chlorella vulgaris culture was harvested at the end of the logarithmic phase, and the biomass was lyophilized. ZnONPs were synthesized using lyophilized biomass and 20 mM zinc acetate dihydrate at a temperature of 70 \u00b0C and continuous stirring in a water bath overnight. At the end of the reaction, UV\u2013Vis absorption of colloidal suspension proved the synthesis of ZnONPs. The physicochemical characteristics of nanoparticles were analyzed using FTIR, DLS, TEM, and XRD. Based on FTIR spectra. The antibacterial activity of green synthesized nanostructures was evaluated against methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE). The synthesized ZnONPs have oxygen-containing groups on the surface that show the synthesized nanoparticles\u2019 stabilization. The Zeta potential was \u221227.4 mV, and the mean particle size was measured as 33.4 nanometers. Biogenic ZnONPs produced in this method have a notable size distribution and excellent surface energy, which can have vast applications like antimicrobial potential in pharmaceuticals as topical forms. Additionally, in order to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of ZnO nanoparticles, we used MRSA and VRE strains and the results showed the anti-MRSA activity at 400 and 625 \u03bcg mL\u22121, respectively. Thus, these biogenic ZnO nanoparticles revealed a substantial antibacterial effect against multidrug-resistant pathogens, associated with several serious systemic infections, and have the potential as an antimicrobial agent for further study.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16020842","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,16]],"date-time":"2023-01-16T04:57:19Z","timestamp":1673845039000},"page":"842","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":52,"title":["Biosynthesis and Antimicrobial Evaluation of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles Using Chlorella vulgaris Biomass against Multidrug-Resistant Pathogens"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4466-3175","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad Hossein","family":"Morowvat","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biotechnology Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz P.O. Box 71468-64685, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kimia","family":"Kazemi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz P.O. Box 71468-64685, Iran"},{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz P.O. Box 71468-64685, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maral Ansari","family":"Jaberi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz P.O. Box 71468-64685, Iran"},{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz P.O. Box 71468-64685, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7987-9243","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abbas","family":"Amini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Australian University (AU)-Kuwait, Mishref, Safat 13015, Kuwait"},{"name":"Center for Infrastructure Engineering, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1851-159X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmad","family":"Gholami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biotechnology Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz P.O. Box 71468-64685, Iran"},{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz P.O. Box 71468-64685, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1080\/20477724.2021.1914412","article-title":"Effect of silver nanoparticles on vancomycin resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection in critically ill patients","volume":"115","author":"Elsawy","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pathog. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6676555","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/6676555","article-title":"Antibacterial effects of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles using Ferula asafoetida against Acinetobacter baumannii isolated from the hospital environment and assessment of their cytotoxicity on the human cell lines","volume":"2021","author":"Abootalebi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Nanomater."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1111\/1475-6773.13135","article-title":"The incremental cost of infections associated with multidrug-resistant organisms in the inpatient hospital setting-A national estimate","volume":"54","author":"Johnston","year":"2019","journal-title":"Health Serv. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Naskar, A., and Kim, K.-S. (2019). Nanomaterials as Delivery Vehicles and Components of New Strategies to Combat Bacterial Infections: Advantages and Limitations. Microorganisms, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms7090356"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s40824-022-00252-y","article-title":"Shape-controlled synthesis of zinc nanostructures mediating macromolecules for biomedical applications","volume":"26","author":"Mousavi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomater. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nikolova, M.P., and Chavali, M.S. (2020). Metal oxide nanoparticles as biomedical materials. Biomimetics, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomimetics5020027"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2014.08.008","article-title":"ZnO nanoparticles induced adjuvant effect via toll-like receptors and Src signaling in Balb\/c mice","volume":"230","author":"Roy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nano.2012.04.004","article-title":"Interaction of inorganic nanoparticles with the skin barrier: Current status and critical review","volume":"9","author":"Labouta","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nanomed. Nanotechnol. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"423287","article-title":"ZnO Nanoparticles Treatment Induces Apoptosis by Increasing Intracellular ROS Levels in LTEP-a-2 Cells","volume":"2015","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.5958\/0974-360X.2019.00158.6","article-title":"A Review on Metallic Gold and Silver Nanoparticles","volume":"12","author":"Devi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Res. J. Pharm. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taghizadeh, S.-M., Lal, N., Ebrahiminezhad, A., Moeini, F., Seifan, M., Ghasemi, Y., and Berenjian, A. (2020). Green and Economic Fabrication of Zinc Oxide (ZnO) Nanorods as a Broadband UV Blocker and Antimicrobial Agent. Nanomaterials, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano10030530"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1021\/nn7000883","article-title":"Silver Nanoplates: From Biological to Biomimetic Synthesis","volume":"1","author":"Xie","year":"2007","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2019.06.222","article-title":"Preparation of Chlorella vulgaris polysaccharides and their antioxidant activity in vitro and in vivo","volume":"137","author":"Yu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3011","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-59945-w","article-title":"Production, extraction and characterization of Chlorella vulgaris soluble polysaccharides and their applications in AgNPs biosynthesis and biostimulation of plant growth","volume":"10","author":"Hussein","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1007\/s10811-005-1641-4","article-title":"An evaluation of methods for extraction and quantification of protein from marine macro- and microalgae","volume":"17","author":"Barbarino","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ab.2016.11.014","article-title":"MBTH: A novel approach to rapid, spectrophotometric quantitation of total algal carbohydrates","volume":"518","author":"Long","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (2018). Methods for Dilution Antimicrobial Susceptibility Tests for Bacteria That Grow Aerobically, Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. [11th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-020-02055-5","article-title":"Green synthesis of CuFe2O4@ Ag nanocomposite using the Chlorella vulgaris and evaluation of its effect on the expression of norA efflux pump gene among Staphylococcus aureus strains","volume":"198","author":"Kahzad","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1007\/s13204-014-0353-y","article-title":"Characterization of biosynthesized gold nanoparticles from aqueous extract of Chlorella vulgaris and their anti-pathogenic properties","volume":"5","author":"Annamalai","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Nanosci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2020.05.024","article-title":"Novel versatile 3D bio-scaffold made of natural biocompatible hagfish exudate for tissue growth and organoid modeling","volume":"158","author":"Amini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., Li, W., Su, K., Zhang, R., Han, H., Deng, Y., and Luo, S. (2019). Green synthesis of ZnO nano particles using chlorella vulgaris extract as additives. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, IOP Publishing.","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/678\/1\/012005"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/720654","article-title":"The Effect of Charge at the Surface of Silver Nanoparticles on Antimicrobial Activity against Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Bacteria: A Preliminary Study","volume":"2015","author":"Abbaszadegan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Nanomater."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e55616","DOI":"10.5812\/jjm.55616","article-title":"Antibiofilm Efficacy of Positively Charged Imidazolium-Based Silver Nanoparticles in Enterococcus faecalis Using Quantitative Real-Time PCR","volume":"10","author":"Nabavizadeh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Jundishapur J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.2174\/2211738506666181031143048","article-title":"Synergistic Evaluation of Functionalized Magnetic Nanoparticles and Antibiotics against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli","volume":"6","author":"Gholami","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pharm. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7372531","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/7372531","article-title":"Antimicrobial Activity of Isoniazid in Conjugation with Surface-Modified Magnetic Nanoparticles against Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Nonmycobacterial Microorganisms","volume":"2020","author":"Zargarnezhad","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Nanomater."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-nbt.2019.0266","article-title":"Antibacterial activity of SPIONs versus ferrous and ferric ions under aerobic and anaerobic conditions: A preliminary mechanism study","volume":"14","author":"Gholami","year":"2020","journal-title":"IET Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/451405","article-title":"Lipoamino Acid Coated Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Concentration and Time Dependently Enhanced Growth of Human Hepatocarcinoma Cell Line (Hep-G2)","volume":"2015","author":"Gholami","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Nanomater."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"1368","article-title":"Antibacterial activity of ZnO nanoparticle on gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria","volume":"5","author":"Chehrazi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Afr. J. Microbiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1884","DOI":"10.5958\/0974-360X.2018.00350.5","article-title":"Evaluation of antibacterial activity of zinc oxide nanoparticles against biofilm producing methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)","volume":"11","author":"Umamageswari","year":"2018","journal-title":"Res. J. Pharm. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.2174\/2211738505666170424121944","article-title":"Antimicrobial, biofilm inhibitory and anti-infective activity of metallic nanoparticles against pathogens MRSA and Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA01","volume":"5","author":"Aswathanarayan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pharm. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2956","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.7b01953","article-title":"Defect-mediated reactive oxygen species generation in Mg-substituted ZnO nanoparticles: Efficient nanomaterials for bacterial inhibition and cancer therapy","volume":"3","author":"Gupta","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2018.08.008","article-title":"Nanoparticles and their antimicrobial properties against pathogens including bacteria, fungi, parasites and viruses","volume":"123","author":"Khezerlou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4020","DOI":"10.1021\/la104825u","article-title":"Size-dependent bacterial growth inhibition and mechanism of antibacterial activity of zinc oxide nanoparticles","volume":"27","author":"Raghupathi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ebrahiminezhad, A., Moeeni, F., Taghizadeh, S.-M., Seifan, M., Bautista, C., Novin, D., Ghasemi, Y., and Berenjian, A. (2019). Xanthan gum capped ZnO microstars as a promising dietary zinc supplementation. Foods, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods8030088"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1007\/s40820-015-0040-x","article-title":"Review on zinc oxide nanoparticles: Antibacterial activity and toxicity mechanism","volume":"7","author":"Sirelkhatim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nano-Micro Lett."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4927","DOI":"10.1039\/C7NR08499D","article-title":"Unexpected insights into antibacterial activity of zinc oxide nanoparticles against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)","volume":"10","author":"Kadiyala","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2325","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02149-10","article-title":"Antibacterial activity and mechanism of action of zinc oxide nanoparticles against Campylobacter jejuni","volume":"77","author":"Xie","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12081","DOI":"10.1002\/jev2.12081","article-title":"Nanoalgosomes: Introducing extracellular vesicles produced by microalgae","volume":"10","author":"Adamo","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2917","DOI":"10.1039\/D0BM01696A","article-title":"Isolation of extracellular vesicles from microalgae: Towards the production of sustainable and natural nanocarriers of bioactive compounds","volume":"9","author":"Picciotto","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2021.04.005","article-title":"Virosome-based nanovaccines; a promising bioinspiration and biomimetic approach for preventing viral diseases: A review","volume":"182","author":"Asadi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/16\/2\/842\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:06:39Z","timestamp":1760119599000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/16\/2\/842"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,15]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ma16020842"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma16020842","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,15]]}}}