{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T08:47:22Z","timestamp":1789548442450,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,27]],"date-time":"2023-07-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1690416000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cementitious materials have potential for infrastructure development in low-temperature marine environments, including in seawater at high latitudes and in deep-sea environments (water depths of &gt;1000 m). Although the marine deterioration of cementitious materials has been widely investigated, the influence of seawater temperature has not been elucidated. In this study, to determine the effects of low-temperature seawater on the durability of cementitious materials, cement paste specimens were immersed in a seawater tank at room temperature and 2 \u00b0C for 433 days. The specimen immersed in low-temperature seawater exhibited significant deterioration with a partially collapsed surface, whereas the specimen immersed in room-temperature seawater maintained its original shape. Following low-temperature immersion, Ca dissolution was more pronounced and dissolved portlandite, decalcified calcium (alumino)silicate hydrate (C\u2013(A-)S\u2013H), magnesium (alumino)silicate hydrate (M\u2013(A-)S\u2013H), and thaumasite were observed on the collapsed surface. Such significant deterioration can be attributed to the increased solubility of portlandite under low-temperature conditions, which could promote Ca dissolution and subsequently lead to C\u2013(A-)S\u2013H decalcification and the formation of M\u2013(A-)S\u2013H and thaumasite. These insights are expected to contribute to the successful construction and maintenance of cementitious structures in low-temperature seawater.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16155278","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,28]],"date-time":"2023-07-28T02:08:00Z","timestamp":1690510080000},"page":"5278","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Deterioration of Cement-Based Materials in Low-Temperature Seawater"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Mari","family":"Kobayashi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Mitsubishi UBE Cement Corporation, 1-6 Okinoyama, Yamaguchi 755-8633, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1076-9756","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Keisuke","family":"Takahashi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mitsubishi UBE Cement Corporation, 1-6 Okinoyama, Yamaguchi 755-8633, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6080-0817","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuichiro","family":"Kawabata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Port and Airport Research Institute, 3-1-1 Nagase, Kanagawa 239-0826, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"60","article-title":"Long-time durablity of concrete in seawater","volume":"68","author":"Gjorv","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Proc."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1016\/0008-8846(86)90046-3","article-title":"The development and stability of surface layers on concrete exposed to sea-water","volume":"16","author":"Buenfeld","year":"1986","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1016\/S0008-8846(00)00245-3","article-title":"Resistance to chemical attack of ground brick\u2013PC mortar: Part II. Synthetic seawater","volume":"30","author":"Wild","year":"2000","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.3151\/jact.1.63","article-title":"Marine durability of 30-year old concrete made with different cements","volume":"1","author":"Mohammed","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Adv. Concr. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2004.09.028","article-title":"Effect of magnesium and sulfate ions on durability of silica fume blended mixes exposed to the seawater tidal zone","volume":"35","author":"Ganjian","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2009.08.005","article-title":"Long-term chloride diffusion in silica fume concrete in harsh marine climates","volume":"31","author":"Shekarchi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2013.09.015","article-title":"Changes in the phase assemblage of concrete exposed to sea water","volume":"47","author":"Justnes","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.05.014","article-title":"Evaluation of field concrete deterioration under real conditions of seawater attack","volume":"119","author":"Ragab","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2016.02.006","article-title":"Elemental zonation in marine concrete","volume":"85","author":"Jakobsen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2018.07.004","article-title":"Performance of 25-year-old silica fume and fly ash lightweight concrete blocks in a harsh marine environment","volume":"113","author":"Moffatt","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2018.09.014","article-title":"Comparing chloride ingress from seawater and NaCl solution in Portland cement mortar","volume":"115","author":"Lothenbach","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-4730(03)00014-6","article-title":"Life-cycle cost analysis of reinforced concrete structures in marine environments","volume":"25","author":"Val","year":"2003","journal-title":"Struct. Saf."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.3151\/jact.14.172","article-title":"Corrosion behavior of steel bar and corrosive cracking of concrete induced by magnesium-sulfate-chloride ions","volume":"14","author":"Jin","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Adv. Concr. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1016\/S0008-8846(99)00055-1","article-title":"Stability and solubility relationships in AFm phases: Part I. Chloride, sulfate and hydroxide","volume":"29","author":"Glasser","year":"1999","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2008.02.004","article-title":"Chloride binding of cement-based materials subjected to external chloride environment\u2014A review","volume":"23","author":"Yuan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2010.03.002","article-title":"Impact of chloride on the mineralogy of hydrated Portland cement systems","volume":"40","author":"Balonis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1551-2916.2010.04050.x","article-title":"Crystal structures and phase transition of cementitious bi-anionic AFm-(Cl\u2212, CO32\u2212) compounds","volume":"94","author":"Mesbah","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Am. Ceram. Soc."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2014.07.007","article-title":"The impact of sulphate and magnesium on chloride binding in Portland cement paste","volume":"65","author":"Geiker","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2014.01.027","article-title":"Impact of the associated cation on chloride binding of Portland cement paste","volume":"68","author":"Colombo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2017.03.012","article-title":"Effect of magnesium on calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H)","volume":"97","author":"Bernard","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2017.10.014","article-title":"Micro- and nano-structural evolutions in white Portland cement\/pulverized fuel ash cement pastes due to deionized-water leaching","volume":"103","author":"Jia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2904","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1151-2916.1992.tb05530.x","article-title":"Composition and appearance of magnesium silicate hydrate and its relation to deterioration of cement-based materials","volume":"75","author":"Bonen","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Am. Ceram. Soc."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2004.03.023","article-title":"The protective layer and decalcification of C-S-H in the mechanism of chloride corrosion of cement paste","volume":"34","author":"Kurdowski","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2015.03.014","article-title":"Crystal structure of magnesium silicate hydrates (M-S-H): The relation with 2:1 Mg\u2013Si phyllosilicates","volume":"73","author":"Roosz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2018.09.007","article-title":"Characterization of magnesium silicate hydrate (M-S-H)","volume":"116","author":"Bernard","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2014.09.006","article-title":"The effect of sea water on the phase assemblage of hydrated cement paste","volume":"55","author":"Justnes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Hewlett, P.C. (1998). Lea\u2019s Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, Arnold."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2013.01.002","article-title":"On the relevance of volume increase for the length changes of mortar bars in sulfate solutions","volume":"46","author":"Kunther","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2013.11.011","article-title":"Expansion mechanisms in calcium aluminate and sulfoaluminate systems with calcium sulfate","volume":"56","author":"Bizzozero","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1016\/S0958-9465(03)00128-8","article-title":"The occurrence of thaumasite as a product of seawater attack","volume":"25","author":"Sibbick","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2023, May 24). Sea Temperature Info. Available online: https:\/\/seatemperature.info\/new-brunswick-water-temperature.html."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2020.106335","article-title":"Physicochemical properties of the Portland cement-based mortar exposed to deep seafloor conditions at a depth of 1680 m","volume":"142","author":"Kobayashi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.3151\/jact.20.254","article-title":"In-situ deep-sea monitoring of cement mortar specimen at a depth of 3515 m and changes in mechanical properties after exposure to deep sea condition","volume":"20","author":"Takahashi","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Adv. Concr. Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2019). Chemical analysis method of cement by X-ray fluorescence (Standard No. JIS R 5204)."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2012.08.011","article-title":"The effect of MgSO4 on thaumasite formation","volume":"35","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-011-9720-2","article-title":"Development of a multi-species mass transport model for concrete with account to thermodynamic phase equilibriums","volume":"44","author":"Hosokawa","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-022-02021-8","article-title":"Physicochemical properties of Portland cement\/calcium aluminate cement\/calcium sulfate ternary binder exposed to long-term deep-sea conditions","volume":"55","author":"Kobayashi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/0008-8846(75)90004-6","article-title":"Thaumasite formation: A cause of deterioration of Portland cement and related substances in the presence of sulphates","volume":"5","author":"Visser","year":"1975","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1016\/S0008-8846(99)00168-4","article-title":"The nature of C-S-H in hardened cements","volume":"29","author":"Richardson","year":"1999","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7796","DOI":"10.1021\/jp990609q","article-title":"Aluminum incorporation in calcium silicate hydrates (C\u2013S\u2013H) depending on their Ca\/Si ratio","volume":"103","author":"Faucon","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105931","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2019.105931","article-title":"Aluminum incorporation into magnesium silicate hydrate (M-S-H)","volume":"128","author":"Bernard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solidstatesciences.2008.01.026","article-title":"Synthesis, characterisation and delamination behaviour of lactate-intercalated Mg,Al-hydrotalcite-like compounds","volume":"10","author":"Holgado","year":"2008","journal-title":"Solid State Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2003.10.009","article-title":"Characterization of white Portland cement hydration and the C-S-H structure in the presence of sodium aluminate by 27Al and 29Si MAS NMR spectroscopy","volume":"34","author":"Andersen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1107\/S2052520614021982","article-title":"Model structures for C-(A)-S-H(I)","volume":"70","author":"Richardson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Crystallogr. Sect. B Struct. Sci. Cryst. Eng. Mater."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1080\/18811248.2002.9715232","article-title":"Silicate anion structural change in calcium silicate hydrate gel on dissolution of hydrated cement","volume":"39","author":"Haga","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2004.06.022","article-title":"Synthesis and characterisation of magnesium silicate hydrate gels","volume":"35","author":"Brew","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2015.10.003","article-title":"Properties of magnesium silicate hydrates (M-S-H)","volume":"79","author":"Nied","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pce.2017.02.005","article-title":"Formation of magnesium silicate hydrates (M-S-H)","volume":"99","author":"Bernard","year":"2017","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Earth Parts A\/B\/C"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1680\/adcr.1995.7.26.69","article-title":"Quantification of thaumasite in cementitious materials by 29Si {1H} cross-polarization magic-angle spinning NMR spectroscopy","volume":"7","author":"Skibsted","year":"1995","journal-title":"Adv. Cem. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2014.09.034","article-title":"Thaumasite sulfate attack on concrete: Mechanisms, influential factors and mitigation","volume":"73","author":"Rahman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Boynton, R.S. (1980). Chemistry and Technology of Lime and Limestone, Wiley-Interscience. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"ChemBK (2023, June 27). Calcium Hydroxide. Available online: https:\/\/www.chembk.com\/en\/chem\/Calcium%20hydroxide."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2006.09.011","article-title":"Differentiating seawater and groundwater sulfate attack in Portland cement mortars","volume":"36","author":"Santhanam","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2007.10.002","article-title":"Thermodynamics of crystallization stresses in DEF","volume":"38","author":"Flatt","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2007.08.017","article-title":"Thermodynamic modelling of the effect of temperature on the hydration and porosity of Portland cement","volume":"38","author":"Lothenbach","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2019.04.017","article-title":"Dynamic microstructural evolution of hardened cement paste during first drying monitored by 1H NMR relaxometry","volume":"122","author":"Maruyama","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/16\/15\/5278\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:20:42Z","timestamp":1760127642000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/16\/15\/5278"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,27]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ma16155278"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma16155278","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,27]]}}}