{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,20]],"date-time":"2026-06-20T05:24:45Z","timestamp":1781933085307,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,8]],"date-time":"2023-08-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1691452800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This article presents the findings of a study focusing on the gas generation of 3D-printed cores fabricated using binder-jetting technology with furfuryl resin. The research aimed to compare gas emission levels, where the volume generated during the thermal degradation of the binder significantly impacts the propensity for gaseous defects in foundries. The study also investigated the influence of the binder type (conventional vs. 3D-printed dedicated binder) and core construction (shell core) on the quantity of gaseous products from the BTEX group formed during the pouring of liquid foundry metal into the cores. The results revealed that the emitted gas volume during the thermal decomposition of the organic binder depended on the core sand components and binder type. Cores produced using conventional methods emitted the least gases due to lower binder content. Increasing Kaltharz U404 resin to 1.5 parts by weight resulted in a 37% rise in gas volume and 27% higher benzene emission. Adopting shell cores reduced gas volume by over 20% (retaining sand with hardener) and 30% (removing sand with hardener), presenting an eco-friendly solution with reduced benzene emissions and core production costs. Shell cores facilitated the quicker removal of gaseous binder decomposition products, reducing the likelihood of casting defects. The disparity in benzene emissions between 3D-printed and vibratory-mixed solid cores is attributed to the sample preparation process, wherein 3D printing ensured greater uniformity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16165507","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,8]],"date-time":"2023-08-08T12:38:59Z","timestamp":1691498339000},"page":"5507","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["The Influence of 3D Printing Core Construction (Binder Jetting) on the Amount of Generated Gases in the Environmental and Technological Aspect"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1964-6154","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Artur","family":"Bobrowski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Foundry Engineering, AGH University of Krakow, Reymonta 23 Str., 30-059 Krak\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Faustyna","family":"Wo\u017aniak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Foundry Engineering, AGH University of Krakow, Reymonta 23 Str., 30-059 Krak\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3348-5991","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sylwia","family":"\u017bymankowska-Kumon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Foundry Engineering, AGH University of Krakow, Reymonta 23 Str., 30-059 Krak\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4278-5921","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karolina","family":"Kaczmarska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Foundry Engineering, AGH University of Krakow, Reymonta 23 Str., 30-059 Krak\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2610-3414","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Beata","family":"Grabowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Foundry Engineering, AGH University of Krakow, Reymonta 23 Str., 30-059 Krak\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Micha\u0142","family":"Dere\u0144","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Foundry Engineering, AGH University of Krakow, Reymonta 23 Str., 30-059 Krak\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert","family":"\u017buchli\u0144ski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bydgoszcz Cast Iron Foundry, Zygmunta Augusta 11 Str., 85-082 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kladovasilakis, N., Tsongas, K., Karalekas, D., and Tzetzis, D. (2022). Architected Materials for Additive Manufacturing: A Comprehensive Review. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15175919"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107972","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymertesting.2023.107972","article-title":"Irianto Mechanical, Thermal and Physical Characteristics of Oil Palm (Elaeis Guineensis) Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites for FDM\u2013Type 3D Printer","volume":"120","author":"Ahmad","year":"2023","journal-title":"Polym. Test."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmatsci.2020.100707","article-title":"Binder Jet 3D Printing\u2014Process Parameters, Materials, Properties, Modeling, and Challenges","volume":"119","author":"Mostafaei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Prog. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmate.2023.100137","article-title":"Understanding Melt Pool Characteristics in Laser Powder Bed Fusion: An Overview of Single- and Multi-Track Melt Pools for Process Optimization","volume":"2","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Powder Mater."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Svidr\u00f3, J., and Di\u00f3szegi, A. (2018, January 23\u201327). New Possibilities in the Thermal Analysis of Moulding Materials. Proceedings of the 73rd World Foundry Congress Creative Foundry, WFC 2018\u2013Proceedings, Krakow, Poland."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmapro.2020.02.043","article-title":"Effect of Process Parameters on Flexure Strength and Gas Permeability of 3D Printed Sand Molds","volume":"54","author":"Sivarupan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Process."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmapro.2017.07.017","article-title":"3D Printing for Rapid Sand Casting\u2014A Review","volume":"29","author":"Upadhyay","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Process."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"062044","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/392\/6\/062044","article-title":"Research on the Influence of Furan Resin Addition on the Performance and Accuracy of 3D Printing Sand Mold","volume":"392","author":"Xue","year":"2018","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmapro.2019.04.034","article-title":"On the Rapid Manufacturing Process of Functional 3D Printed Sand Molds","volume":"42","author":"Mitra","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Process."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"101889","article-title":"A Review on the Progress and Challenges of Binder Jet 3D Printing of Sand Moulds for Advanced Casting","volume":"40","author":"Sivarupan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bobrowski, A., Kaczmarska, K., Dro\u017cy\u0144ski, D., Wo\u017aniak, F., Dere\u0144, M., Grabowska, B., \u017bymankowska-Kumon, S., and Szucki, M. (2023). 3D Printed (Binder Jetting) Furan Molding and Core Sands\u2014Thermal Deformation, Mechanical and Technological Properties. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16093339"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.24425\/afe.2022.140216","article-title":"Evaluation of Collapsibility of Selected Core Systems","volume":"22","author":"Obzina","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch. Foundry Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10751","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2022.e10751","article-title":"Evaluation of Additive Manufacturing of Sand Cores in Terms of the Resulting Surface Roughness","volume":"8","author":"Gawronov","year":"2022","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-023-11049-1","article-title":"Challenges and Recent Progress on the Application of Rapid Sand Casting for Part Production: A Review","volume":"126","author":"Oguntuyi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Sabry, F. (2023, July 13). Druk 4D: Poczekaj Chwil\u0119, Czy Powiedzia\u0142e\u015b, \u017be Druk 4D?; Jeden Miliard Kompetentny. Available online: https:\/\/www.barnesandnoble.com\/w\/druk-4d-fouad-sabry\/1140529635."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122926","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2023.122926","article-title":"Energy Consumption and Carbon Footprint of 3D Printing in Pharmaceutical Manufacture","volume":"639","author":"Elbadawi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"17","article-title":"Ocena Wp\u0142ywu Jako\u015bci Regeneratu Na Parametry Powierzchniowe Odlew\u00f3w","volume":"14","author":"Holtzer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch. Foundry Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17867","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceramint.2020.04.093","article-title":"Mechanical Characterisation of Anisotropic Silica Sand\/Furan Resin Compound Induced by Binder Jet 3D Additive Manufacturing Technology","volume":"46","author":"Dana","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ceram. Int."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"252","article-title":"Thermal Properties of 3D-Printed Sand Molds","volume":"16","author":"Saeidpour","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Met."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.03.158","article-title":"Reduced Consumption of Materials and Hazardous Chemicals for Energy Efficient Production of Metal Parts through 3D Printing of Sand Molds","volume":"224","author":"Sivarupan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1108\/RPJ-08-2014-0101","article-title":"Characterisation of Direct 3D Sand Printing Process for the Production of Sand Cast Mould Tools","volume":"23","author":"Hackney","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rapid Prototyp. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmapro.2020.01.055","article-title":"Fabrication of a Ceramic Core for an Impeller Blade Using a 3D Printing Technique and Inorganic Binder","volume":"53","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Process."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Bryant, N., Villela, J., Villela, J.O., Alem\u00e1n, A., O\u2019Dell, J., Ravi, S., Thiel, J., and MacDonald, E. (2022). 2022 International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium, University of Texas at Austin."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2017.09.108","article-title":"Towards Zero Waste Manufacturing: A Multidisciplinary Review","volume":"168","author":"Singh","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Mitra, S. (2019). Experimental and Numerical Characterization of Functional Properties of Sand Molds Produced by Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing by Jet Binding) in a Fast Foundry. [Doctoral Thesis, Ecole Nationale Sup\u00e9rieure d\u2019arts et M\u00e9tiers\u2014ENSAM]."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Dai, X., Zhu, W.Y., Wang, J.X., and Wang, W.H. (2020). Preparation Method of Furan Resin for 3D Printing. (107778491B), CN Patent."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"97","article-title":"Selected Casting Processes in the Aspect of Their Effect on the Environment Protection","volume":"58","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pr. Inst. Odlew."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Budzik, G., Wo\u017aniak, J., and Przesz\u0142owski, \u0141. (2022). Druk 3D Jako Element Przemys\u0142u Przysz\u0142o\u015bci. Analiza Rynku i Tendencje Rozwoju, Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Rzeszowskiej."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1007\/s41230-018-7035-4","article-title":"Studies on Thermal Decomposition of Phenol Binder Using TG\/DTG\/DTA and FTIR-DRIFTS Techniques in Temperature Range 20\u2013500 \u00b0C","volume":"15","author":"Bobrowski","year":"2018","journal-title":"China Foundry"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stampfl, J., Wang, X., Wu, Q., Huang, Y., Li, N., Wu, X., Chen, X., Wang, J., Jing, T., and Huang, T. (2023). Study on the Gas Release of 3D-Printed Furan Resin Sand Core during the Casting Process. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16114152"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1515\/amm-2015-0056","article-title":"Harmfulness Assessment of Moulding Sands with a Geopolymer Binder and a New Hardener, in An Aspect of the Emission of Substances from the Btex Group","volume":"60","author":"Bobrowski","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch. Metall. Mater."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1515\/afe-2017-0125","article-title":"TG\/DTG\/DTA, FTIR and GC\/MS Studies of Oil Sand for Artistic and Precision Foundry with the Emission of Gases Assessment","volume":"17","author":"Bobrowski","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arch. Foundry Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Holtzer, M., and Dan\u0301ko, R. (2013). Ocena Szkodliwos\u0301ci Materia\u0142o\u0301w Wia\u0328z\u0307a\u0328cych Stosowanych Do Mas Formierskich i Rdzeniowych Nowej Generacji, Wydawnictwo Naukowe AKAPIT."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"20","article-title":"Ocena Wp\u0142ywu Dodatku Regeneratu Do Masy Formierskiej Na Ilo\u015b\u0107 Zwi\u0105zk\u00f3w z Grupy BTEX, Powstaj\u0105cych w Trakcie Procesu Zalewania Formy Ciek\u0142ym Metalem","volume":"67","author":"Kubecki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pr. Inst. Metal. \u017belaza"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1007\/s11465-013-0248-8","article-title":"Additive Manufacturing: Technology, Applications and Research Needs","volume":"8","author":"Guo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3153","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-016-8085-z","article-title":"Environmental Analysis of Waste Foundry Sand via Life Cycle Assessment","volume":"24","author":"Mitterpach","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Snelling, D., Williams, C., and Druschitz, A. (2014). 2014 International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium, University of Texas at Austin."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"55","article-title":"Technologia Druku 3D Jako Szansa Dla \u015arodowiska Naturalnego","volume":"14","author":"Jaworska","year":"1991","journal-title":"Acta Poligraphica"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.2478\/v10266-012-0084-z","article-title":"Analysis of the Compounds from the BTEX Group, Emitted during Thermal Decomposition of Alkyd Resin","volume":"12","author":"Kubecki","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Foundry Eng."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"149","article-title":"The Use of Gas Chromatography in Pyrolysis of Foundry Binders","volume":"14","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch. Foundry Eng."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/16\/16\/5507\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:27:43Z","timestamp":1760128063000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/16\/16\/5507"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,8]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ma16165507"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma16165507","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,8]]}}}