{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T11:17:22Z","timestamp":1774955842146,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]],"date-time":"2023-10-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1698278400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Japan Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research","award":["22K10278"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["22K10278"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: We investigated the effect of bioactive glass and zinc oxide nanoparticles on enamel remineralization, as well as their antimicrobial effect on cariogenic microbes. This is the first study that investigated the properties of bioactive glass and zinc oxide nanoparticles with mixed materials. Methods: Fluoride gel (F), bioactive glass microparticles (\u00b5B), bioactive glass nanoparticles (nB), zinc oxide nanoparticles (Z), and a mixed suspension of nB and Z (nBZ) were prepared and characterized by scanning and transmission electron microscopy, zeta potential measurement, X-ray diffraction, and acid buffering capacity testing. Further, we performed a remineralization cycle test of 28 days, and nanoindentation testing was carried out during the immersion period, and then the enamel surfaces were examined using scanning electron microscopy. Additionally, the antimicrobial effects of the sample suspensions were evaluated by measuring their minimum microbicidal concentrations against various cariogenic microbes. Results: Our results revealed that nB had a near-circular shape with an amorphous structure and a considerably large specific surface area due to nanoparticulation. Additionally, nB possessed a rapid acid buffering capacity that was comparable to that of \u03bcB. In the remineralization test, faster recovery of mechanical properties was observed on the enamel surface immersed in samples containing bioactive glass nanoparticles (nB and nBZ). After remineralization, demineralized enamel immersed in any of the samples showed a rough and porous surface structure covered with mineralized structures. Furthermore, nBZ exhibited a broad antimicrobial spectrum. Conclusions: These results demonstrated that bioactive glass and zinc oxide nanoparticles have superior demineralization-suppressing and remineralization-promoting effects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16216878","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]],"date-time":"2023-10-26T07:22:15Z","timestamp":1698304935000},"page":"6878","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Synthesis and Characterization of Bioactive Glass and Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles with Enamel Remineralization and Antimicrobial Capabilities"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Ryota","family":"Nagasaki","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, Department of Oral Growth and Development, School of Dentistry, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, 1757 Kanazawa, Ishikari-Tobetsu 061-0293, Hokkaido, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Keiji","family":"Nagano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Microbiology, Department of Oral Biology, School of Dentistry, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, 1757 Kanazawa, Ishikari-Tobetsu 061-0293, Hokkaido, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Takashi","family":"Nezu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Biomaterials and Bioengineering, Department of Oral Rehabilitation, School of Dentistry, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, 1757 Kanazawa, Ishikari-Tobetsu 061-0293, Hokkaido, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Masahiro","family":"Iijima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, Department of Oral Growth and Development, School of Dentistry, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, 1757 Kanazawa, Ishikari-Tobetsu 061-0293, Hokkaido, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1143","article-title":"The latest and best in orthodontic mechanism","volume":"70","author":"Angle","year":"1928","journal-title":"Dent. Cosm."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1177\/00220345550340060801","article-title":"A simple method of increasing the adhesion of acrylic filling materials to enamel surface","volume":"34","author":"Buonocore","year":"1955","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9416(65)90203-4","article-title":"Epoxy adhesives for orthodontic attachments","volume":"51","author":"Newman","year":"1965","journal-title":"Am. J. Orthod."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajodo.2006.09.043","article-title":"Prevention of demineralization around orthodontic brackets in vitro","volume":"131","author":"Sudjalim","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Orthod. Dentofac. Orthop."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.2319\/020411-78.1","article-title":"Effects of bonding materials on the mechanical properties of enamel around orthodontic brackets","volume":"82","author":"Kohda","year":"2012","journal-title":"Angle. Orthod."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-051X.1987.tb00954.x","article-title":"Some periodontal tissue reactions to orthodontic tooth movement in monkeys","volume":"14","author":"Wennstromn","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bdj.2013.162","article-title":"Contemporary perspective on the use of fluoride products in caries prevention","volume":"214","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.58.1.90","article-title":"Acute fluoride poisoning","volume":"58","author":"Yolken","year":"1976","journal-title":"Paediatrics"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1159\/000327028","article-title":"Chronic fluoride toxicity: Dental fluorosis","volume":"22","author":"Li","year":"2011","journal-title":"Monogr. Oral. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.820050611","article-title":"Bonding mechanisms at the interface of ceramic prosthetic materials","volume":"5","author":"Hench","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/0142-9612(91)90194-F","article-title":"Bioactive glass ceramics: Properties and applications","volume":"12","author":"Kokubo","year":"1991","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1177\/0085328204044538","article-title":"Release of silica, calcium, phosphorus, and fluoride fromglass ionomer cement containing bioactive glass","volume":"19","author":"Vallittu","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Biomater. Appl."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.4012\/dmj.2013-120","article-title":"Crystal growth on bioactive glass sputter-coated alumina in artificial saliva","volume":"32","author":"Iijima","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dent. Mater. J."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1016\/S0142-9612(97)00249-4","article-title":"Behaviour of human osteoblasts cultured on bioactive glass coatings","volume":"19","author":"Oliva","year":"1998","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3093(01)00822-5","article-title":"Highly bioactive P2O5-Na2O-CaO-SiO2 glass-ceramics","volume":"292","author":"Peitl","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Non-Cryst. Solids."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2921","DOI":"10.1016\/S0955-2219(03)00303-0","article-title":"Bioactive glass coatings for orthopedic metallic implants","volume":"23","author":"Saiz","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Eur. Ceram. Soc."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2133","DOI":"10.1016\/S0142-9612(03)00037-1","article-title":"Developing bioactive composite materials for tissue replacement","volume":"24","author":"Wang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2012.08.023","article-title":"Review of bioactive glass: From Hench to hybrids","volume":"9","author":"Jones","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta. Biomater."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1177\/0895937409335621","article-title":"Calcium sodium phosphosilicate (NovaMin\u00ae): Remineralization potential","volume":"21","author":"Burwell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adv. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdent.2010.11.007","article-title":"Preventing erosion with novel agents","volume":"39","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Dent."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3598","DOI":"10.1021\/la960143s","article-title":"Extended X-ray absorption fine structure analysis of ZnS nanocrystallites in N,N-Dimethylformamide. An effect of counteranions on the microscopic structure of a solvated surface","volume":"12","author":"Hosokawa","year":"1996","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2938","DOI":"10.1021\/la025969a","article-title":"Preparation and characterization of clay mineral intercalated titanium dioxide nanoparticles","volume":"19","author":"Mogyorosi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4403","DOI":"10.1063\/1.447218","article-title":"Electron-electron and electron-hole interactions in small semiconductor crystallites: The size dependence of the lowest excited electronic state","volume":"80","author":"Brus","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6632","DOI":"10.1021\/ja00256a012","article-title":"Photochemistry of semiconductor colloids. 22. electron ejection from illuminated cadmium sulfide into attached titanium and zinc oxide particles","volume":"109","author":"Spanhel","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"2311","article-title":"Quaternary Trimethyl Chitosan Chloride Capped Bismuth Nanoparticles with Positive Surface Charges: Catalytic and Antibacterial Activities","volume":"8","author":"Alli","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Cluster Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5240","DOI":"10.1021\/acsabm.2c00670","article-title":"Compressed hydrogen-induced synthesis of quaternary trimethyl chitosan-silver nanoparticles with dual antibacterial and antifungal activities","volume":"5","author":"Alli","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Bio Mater."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.2004.02234.x","article-title":"Quantitative evaluation of antifungal activity of metallic oxide powders (MgO, CaO and ZnO) by an indirect conductimetric assay","volume":"96","author":"Sawai","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1447","DOI":"10.1007\/s11947-012-0797-6","article-title":"Zinc oxide nanoparticles: Synthesis, antimicrobial activity and food packaging applications","volume":"5","author":"Cruz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Food Bioproc. Technol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2432","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200600200","article-title":"Dissolving behaviour and stability of ZnO wires in biofluids: A study on biodegradability and biocompatibility of ZnO nano-structures","volume":"18","author":"Zhou","year":"2006","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20114","DOI":"10.1021\/jp808878p","article-title":"Cellular level biocompatibility and biosafety of ZnO nanowires","volume":"112","author":"Li","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. C"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kawaguchi, K., Iijima, M., Endo, K., and Mizoguchi, I. (2017). Electrophoretic deposition as a new bioactive glass coating process for orthodontic stainless steel. Coatings, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/coatings7110199"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.a.31848","article-title":"Preparation and in vitro characterization of novel bioactive glass ceramic nanoparticles","volume":"88","author":"Hong","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1021\/ja01269a023","article-title":"Adsorption of gases in multimolecular layers","volume":"60","author":"Brunauer","year":"1938","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-4636(19981205)42:3<412::AID-JBM10>3.0.CO;2-I","article-title":"In vitro stability predictions for the bone\/hydroxyapatite composite system","volume":"42","author":"Oppermann","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sdentj.2018.06.003","article-title":"A systematic review on antibacterial activity of zinc against Streptococcus mutans","volume":"30","author":"Almoudi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Saudi Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1351\/pac198557040603","article-title":"Reporting physisorption data for gas\/ solid systems with special reference to the determination of surface area and porosity (Recommendations 1984)","volume":"57","author":"Sing","year":"1985","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Chem."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9797(68)90272-5","article-title":"Controlled growth of monodisperse silica spheres in the micron size range","volume":"26","author":"Fink","year":"1968","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.10026","article-title":"Characterization of melt-derived 45S5 and sol-gel-derived 58S bioactive glasses","volume":"58","author":"Sepulveda","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1276","DOI":"10.1039\/b814292k","article-title":"Nanostructure evolution and calcium distribution in sol-gel derived bioactive glass","volume":"19","author":"Lin","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Grumezescu, A.M. (2017). Multifunctional Systems for Combined Delivery, Biosensing and Diagnostics, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"234","article-title":"A preliminary study of enamel remineralization by dentifrices based on Recalden (CPP-ACP) and Novamin (calcium-sodium-phosphosilicate)","volume":"23","author":"Gjorgievska","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acta Odontol. Latinoam."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/0889-5406(90)70009-2","article-title":"Effects of phosphoric acid concentration and etch duration on enamel depth of etch: An in vitro study","volume":"98","author":"Legler","year":"1990","journal-title":"Am. J. Orthod. Dentofac. Orthop."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1159\/000084807","article-title":"Effect of a calcium carbonate-based dentifrice on in situ enamel remineralization","volume":"39","author":"Cury","year":"2005","journal-title":"Caries Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1016\/j.archoralbio.2014.04.005","article-title":"Comparison of knoop and vickers surface microhardness and transverse microradiography for the study of early caries lesion formation in human and bovine enamel","volume":"59","author":"Lippert","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch. Oral. Biol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1812","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apt.2018.04.017","article-title":"The effects of morphology on physicochemical properties, bioactivity and biocompatibility of micro-\/nano-bioactive glasses","volume":"29","author":"Hu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1619","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2008.12.025","article-title":"Bacterial toxicity comparison between nano- and micro-scaled oxide particles","volume":"157","author":"Jiang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"754","DOI":"10.1177\/154405910708600813","article-title":"Antimicrobial effect of nanometric bioactive glass 45S5","volume":"86","author":"Waltimo","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matchemphys.2010.01.020","article-title":"ZnO nanofluids: Green synthesis, characterization, and antibacterial activity","volume":"121","author":"Jalal","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mater. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tiv.2009.05.015","article-title":"Toxicity of nanoparticles of ZnO, CuO and TiO2 to yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae","volume":"23","author":"Kasemets","year":"2009","journal-title":"Toxicol. In Vitro"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6679","DOI":"10.1021\/la0202374","article-title":"Metal oxide nanoparticles as bactericidal agents","volume":"18","author":"Stoimenov","year":"2002","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1875-595X.2011.00049.x","article-title":"Zinc in the mouth, its interactions with dental enamel and possible effects on caries; a review of the literature","volume":"61","author":"Lynch","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, P., Garg, A., Pandit, S., Mokkapati, V., and Mijakovic, I. (2018). Antimicrobial effects of biogenic nanoparticles. Nanomaterials, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano8121009"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.14219\/jada.archive.1967.0266","article-title":"Clinical anticaries effect of repeated topical sodium fluoride applications by mouthpieces","volume":"75","author":"Englander","year":"1967","journal-title":"J. Am. Dent. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.4103\/2231-0762.167719","article-title":"Critical evaluation of incidence and prevalence of white spot lesions during fixed orthodontic appliance treatment: A meta-analysis","volume":"5","author":"Sundararaj","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Int. Soc. Prev. Commun. Dent."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"494","article-title":"Consequence of poor oral hygiene during aligner therapy","volume":"47","author":"Moshiri","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Orthod."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fhfh.2023.100124","article-title":"Hydrogen-assisted facile synthesis of N, N, N-trimethyl chitosan stabilized zinc oxide nanoparticles and its influence on the quality of Solanum lycopersicum L.","volume":"3","author":"Alli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll. Health"}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/16\/21\/6878\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:12:16Z","timestamp":1760130736000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/16\/21\/6878"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ma16216878"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma16216878","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]]}}}