{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T17:04:54Z","timestamp":1787763894483,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,21]],"date-time":"2024-01-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1705795200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"OP RDE","award":["CZ.02.1.01\/0.0\/0.0\/16_019\/0000803"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CZ.02.1.01\/0.0\/0.0\/16_019\/0000803"]}]},{"name":"OP RDE","award":["IGA A_20_17"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IGA A_20_17"]}]},{"name":"Internal Grant Agency (IGA) of the Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences","award":["CZ.02.1.01\/0.0\/0.0\/16_019\/0000803"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CZ.02.1.01\/0.0\/0.0\/16_019\/0000803"]}]},{"name":"Internal Grant Agency (IGA) of the Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences","award":["IGA A_20_17"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IGA A_20_17"]}]},{"name":"The Ministry of Education","award":["CZ.02.1.01\/0.0\/0.0\/16_019\/0000803"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CZ.02.1.01\/0.0\/0.0\/16_019\/0000803"]}]},{"name":"The Ministry of Education","award":["IGA A_20_17"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IGA A_20_17"]}]},{"name":"Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic","award":["CZ.02.1.01\/0.0\/0.0\/16_019\/0000803"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CZ.02.1.01\/0.0\/0.0\/16_019\/0000803"]}]},{"name":"Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic","award":["IGA A_20_17"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IGA A_20_17"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this study, alder, spruce, and beech woods were used for homogeneous symmetric, inhomogeneous symmetric (combined) and inhomogeneous non-symmetric glued laminated timber (glulam) beams glued with resorcinol phenol formaldehyde (RPF) adhesive. The aim of this paper is to determine and compare the modulus of elasticity of glulam beams using three methods, i.e., analytical calculation, numerical model (FEM) and experimental testing. As an additional characteristic, the bending strength (MOR) of the beams was determined during experimental testing. Analytical calculation was used to calculate the modulus of elasticity (MOE) of glued laminated timber based on the knowledge of the modulus of elasticity of solid wood and to estimate the location of the neutral axis during bending. According to calculations, for symmetrical combinations, the deviation from the real neutral axis does not exceed 5%. In the case of the modulus of elasticity, the deviation is an average of 4.1% from that of the actual measured beams. The numerical model includes finite element modelling, where the deflection of the modelled beams can be calculated with a deviation of up to 10%. The last method was experimental testing of glued beams using four-point bending, in which, among homogeneous beams, beech glulam beams achieved the highest MOE and MOR, while alder glulam beams achieved the lowest. The combination of wood species resulted in an increase in both MOE and MOR compared to homogeneous spruce and alder beams.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17020514","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,22]],"date-time":"2024-01-22T06:49:31Z","timestamp":1705906171000},"page":"514","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Predicted and Experimental Bending Behaviour of Glulam Bonded by RPF Adhesive"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3356-3905","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tom\u00e1\u0161","family":"Kytka","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Wood Processing and Biomaterials, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamycka 1176, 165 00 Prague-Suchdol, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0537-0815","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miroslav","family":"Ga\u0161par\u00edk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Wood Processing and Biomaterials, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamycka 1176, 165 00 Prague-Suchdol, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luk\u00e1\u0161","family":"Sahula","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Wood Processing and Biomaterials, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamycka 1176, 165 00 Prague-Suchdol, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0417-9621","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Nov\u00e1k","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Wood Processing and Biomaterials, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamycka 1176, 165 00 Prague-Suchdol, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2942-3333","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elham","family":"Karami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Wood Processing and Biomaterials, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamycka 1176, 165 00 Prague-Suchdol, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sumanta","family":"Das","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Wood Processing and Biomaterials, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamycka 1176, 165 00 Prague-Suchdol, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Svit\u00e1k","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Wood Processing and Biomaterials, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamycka 1176, 165 00 Prague-Suchdol, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaufmann, H., Kr\u00f6tsch, S., and Winter, S. (2022). Manual of Multistorey Timber Construction: Principles\u2014Constructions\u2014Examples, Detail.","DOI":"10.11129\/9783955535827"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1435","DOI":"10.1007\/s00107-018-1328-6","article-title":"Experimental study on glued laminated timber beams with well-known knot morphology","volume":"76","author":"Kandler","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Wood Wood Prod."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"669","article-title":"The Effect of Milling Parameters and Thermal Modification on Power Input During the Milling of Thermally Modified Spruce and Oak Wood","volume":"14","author":"Kubs","year":"2019","journal-title":"BioResources"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate1687","article-title":"Climate change may cause severe loss in the economic value of European forest land","volume":"3","author":"Hanewinkel","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Change"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L\u00f6we, R., Sedleck\u00fd, M., Sikora, A., Prok\u016fpkov\u00e1, A., Modlinger, R., Novotn\u00fd, K., and Tur\u010d\u00e1ni, M. (2022). How Bark Beetle Attack Changes the Tensile and Compressive Strength of Spruce Wood (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.). Forests, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/f13010087"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119950","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2021.119950","article-title":"Forest margins provide favourable microclimatic niches to swarming bark beetles, but Norway spruce trees were not attacked by Ips typographus shortly after edge creation in a field experiment","volume":"506","author":"Modlinger","year":"2022","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"607","article-title":"Application of hardwood for glued laminated timber in Europe","volume":"72","author":"Boko","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gra\u0111evinar"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1007\/s00107-020-01572-3","article-title":"Use of northern hardwoods in glued-laminated timber: A study of bondline shear strength and resistance to moisture","volume":"78","author":"Blanchet","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Wood Wood Prod."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1007\/s40725-019-00086-3","article-title":"Black Alder (Alnus glutinosa L.)\u2014A Resource for Value-Added Products in Furniture Industry Under European Screening","volume":"5","author":"Salca","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. For. Rep."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1007\/s00107-019-01467-y","article-title":"Selected physical, mechanical, and insulation properties of carbon fiber fabric-reinforced composite plywood for carriage floors","volume":"77","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Wood Wood Prod."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1007\/s00107-020-01569-y","article-title":"Mechanical performance of glulam products made with Portuguese poplar","volume":"78","author":"Monteiro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Wood Wood Prod."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"(2013). Timber Structures\u2014Glued Laminated Timber and Glued Solid Timber\u2014Requirements (Standard No. \u010cSN EN 14080)."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130563","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.130563","article-title":"Experimental Study on the Effects of Scale on the Static and Dynamic Behaviour of Glulam and Hybrid-Glulam Beams","volume":"369","author":"Gattas","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Du, H., Yuan, S., Liu, P., Hu, X., and Han, G. (2022). Experimental and Finite Element Study on Bending Performance of Glulam-Concrete Composite Beam Reinforced with Timber Board. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15227998"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3883","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apm.2011.11.062","article-title":"Modelling the bending behaviour of a new hybrid glulam beam reinforced with FRP and ultra-high-performance concrete","volume":"36","author":"Ferrier","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Math. Model."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2021.114319","article-title":"Bending work of laminated materials based on densified wood and reinforcing components","volume":"274","author":"Sikora","year":"2021","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Muraleedharan, A., and Reiterer, S.M. (2016). Combined Glued Laminated Timber Using Hardwood and Softwood Lamellas. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Linnaeus University]."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bianconi, F., and Filippucci, M. (2019). Digital Wood Design: Innovative Techniques of Representation in Architectural Design, Springer International Publishing. Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-03676-8"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2015.06.064","article-title":"Assessing the integrity of glued-laminated timber elements","volume":"101","author":"Dietsch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dziurka, D., Kawalerczyk, J., Walkiewicz, J., Derkowski, A., and Mirski, R. (2022). The Possibility to Use Pine Timber Pieces with Small Size in the Production of Glulam Beams. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15093154"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Tapia Cam\u00fa, C., and Aicher, S. (2018, January 20\u201323). A Stochastic Finite Element Model for Glulam Beams of Hardwoods. Proceedings of the World Conference for Timber Engineering (WCTE), Seoul, Republic of Korea."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Derkowski, A., Kuli\u0144ski, M., Troci\u0144ski, A., Kawalerczyk, J., and Mirski, R. (2022). Mechanical Characterization of Glued Laminated Beams Containing Selected Wood Species in the Tension Zone. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15186380"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Del Senno, M., Paganini, F., Piazza, M., and Tomasi, R. (2012). Architectural Engineering 2003: Building Integration Solutions, ASCE."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leggate, W., McGavin, R.L., Outhwaite, A., Gilbert, B.P., and Gunalan, S. (2022). Barriers to the Effective Adhesion of High-Density Hardwood Timbers for Glue-Laminated Beams in Australia. Forests, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/f13071038"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1028","DOI":"10.1080\/17480272.2022.2137697","article-title":"The use of large-scale X-ray computed tomography for the evaluation of damaged structural elements from an old timber bridge","volume":"17","author":"Myronycheva","year":"2022","journal-title":"Wood Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2021.103471","article-title":"Development of an analytical model to predict the bending behavior of composite glulam beams in tension and compression","volume":"45","author":"Timbolmas","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2012). Timber Structures\u2014Structural Timber and Glued Laminated Timber\u2014Determination of Some Physical and Mechanical Properties (Standard No. \u010cSN EN 408 + A1)."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2016). Structural Timber\u2014Strength Classes (Standard No. \u010cSN EN 338)."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"050005","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5019059","article-title":"Numerical model of glulam beam delamination in dependence on cohesive strength","volume":"1922","author":"Kawecki","year":"2018","journal-title":"AIP Conf. Proc."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1665","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2006.08.025","article-title":"An engineering solution for mesh size effects in the simulation of delamination using cohesive zone models","volume":"74","author":"Turon","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eng. Fract. Mech."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rescalvo, F.J., Timbolmas, C., Bravo, R., and Gallego, A. (2020). Experimental and Numerical Analysis of Mixed I-214 Poplar\/Pinus Sylvestris Laminated Timber Subjected to Bending Loadings. Materials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13143134"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2014). Physical and Mechanical Properties of Wood\u2014Test Methods for Small Clear Wood Specimens\u2014Part 1: Determination of Moisture Content for Physical and Mechanical Tests (Standard No. ISO 13061-1)."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2014). Physical and Mechanical Properties of Wood\u2014Test Methods for Small Clear Wood Specimens\u2014Part 2: Determination of Density for Physical and Mechanical Tests (Standard No. ISO 13061-2)."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1007\/s00107-013-0682-7","article-title":"Relationship between local and global modulus of elasticity in bending and its consequence on structural timber grading","volume":"71","author":"Nocetti","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Wood Wood Prod."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128916","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.128916","article-title":"Bending characteristics of glued laminated timber depending on the alternating effects of freezing and heating","volume":"350","author":"Kytka","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1515\/hf.2011.180","article-title":"Revisiting the neutral axis in wood beams","volume":"66","author":"Davis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Holzforschung"},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"90","article-title":"Improvement of Prediction Accuracy of Glulam Modulus of Elasticity by Considering Neutral Axis Shift in Bending","volume":"41","author":"Shim","year":"2009","journal-title":"Wood Fiber Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compscitech.2011.04.007","article-title":"Nondestructive test and prediction of MOE of FRP reinforced fast-growing poplar glulam","volume":"71","author":"Cheng","year":"2011","journal-title":"Compos. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMM.611.54","article-title":"Bending Tests and Simulations of GLT Beams","volume":"611","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Mech. Mater."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1007\/s00107-020-01545-6","article-title":"European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) glued laminated timber: Lamination strength grading, production and mechanical properties","volume":"78","author":"Ehrhart","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Wood Wood Prod."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0160uhajdov\u00e1, E., Schmid, P., Novotn\u00fd, M., P\u011bn\u010d\u00edk, J., \u0160uhajda, K., and Uhl\u00edk, O. (2023). Experimental Research on Hybrid Hardwood Glue-Laminated Beams. Buildings, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings13041055"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1007\/s10086-011-1175-0","article-title":"Bending creep of glued laminated timber (glulam) using sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) laminae with extremely low Young\u2019s modulus for the inner layers","volume":"57","author":"Aratake","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Wood Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1676","DOI":"10.1080\/17480272.2023.2175254","article-title":"The effect of laminate configuration on the mechanical properties of model glued-laminated timber composed of single and mixed tropical fast-growing tree species","volume":"18","author":"Ngadianto","year":"2023","journal-title":"Wood Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.127345","article-title":"Assessment of bonding durability of CLT and glulam made from oak and mixed poplar-oak according to bonding pressure and glue type","volume":"335","author":"Purba","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.07.002","article-title":"Experimental investigation on full-scale glued oak solid timber beams for structural bearing capacity","volume":"123","author":"Tran","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Bal\u00e1sz, I., Pe\u0161ek, O., and Bukovsk\u00e1, P. (2023, December 03). Hardwood-Softwood Combination in Glued Laminated Timber Cross-Section. Transactions of VSB\u2014Technical University of Ostrava, Civil Engineering Series, Section Building Structures & Structural Mechanics. Available online: https:\/\/dspace.vsb.cz\/handle\/10084\/142260."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1080\/17480272.2021.1960422","article-title":"Mechanical properties of Glued-laminated timber made up of mixed tropical wood species","volume":"17","author":"Ikogou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Wood Mater. Sci. Eng."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/17\/2\/514\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:46:42Z","timestamp":1760104002000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/17\/2\/514"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,21]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ma17020514"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma17020514","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,21]]}}}