{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]],"date-time":"2026-06-27T09:23:03Z","timestamp":1782552183526,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,25]],"date-time":"2024-03-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1711324800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002383","name":"Deanship of Scientific Research of King Saud University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RSPD2024R1059"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RSPD2024R1059"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002383","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Solving the challenges facing the mining industry is crucial for shaping the global attitude towards clean energy technologies associated with critical minerals extracted from depth. One of these challenges is the well-known explosion-like fractures (rockbursts) or spalling failures associated with the initiation of internal cracks. To prevent such catastrophic failure, shotcrete, as a cement grout, is widely used in tunnel support applications. In areas where the tunnels are constructed within the limestone strata using tunnel boring machines (TBM), drilling, and\/or blasting, millions of cubic meters of crushed limestone (CL) in powder form are extracted and landfilled as waste. Given the fact that natural sand consumption as a raw material in the construction industry exceeds previous records, recycling of such excavation material is now becoming increasingly needed. From this perspective, this study aims to utilize crushed limestone as a potentially sustainable alternative to natural sand in shotcrete applications in deep tunnels. Accordingly, several strength characterization and crack initiation determinations through various stress\u2013strain-based models were carried out on cylindrical samples containing different proportions of crushed limestone. By increasing the crushed limestone content in the shotcrete mix, the crack initiation stress (as a measure of the in situ spalling strength) increased as well. The results suggest that the crushed limestone has good potential to replace the natural sand in the shotcrete mixture used in tunnel support applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17071486","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,25]],"date-time":"2024-03-25T12:28:06Z","timestamp":1711369686000},"page":"1486","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Utilizing Crushed Limestone as a Sustainable Alternative in Shotcrete Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7111-7615","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elamin","family":"Mutaz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muawia","family":"Dafalla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh 11362, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6812-9335","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed M.","family":"Al-Mahbashi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh 11362, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5024-8790","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mehdi","family":"Serati","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Quantitative definition and investigation of deep mining","volume":"40","author":"Xie","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. China Coal Soc."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"1","article-title":"Research framework and anticipated results of deep rock mechanics and mining theory","volume":"49","author":"Xie","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1016\/J.ENG.2017.04.024","article-title":"Opportunities and challenges in deep mining: A brief review","volume":"3","author":"Ranjith","year":"2017","journal-title":"Engineering"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2478.12273","article-title":"Integrated interpretation of 3D seismic data to enhance the detection of the gold-bearing reef: Mponeng Gold mine, Witwatersrand Basin (South Africa)","volume":"63","author":"Manzi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geophys. Prospect."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2013.01.015","article-title":"Empirical investigation and characterization of surface subsidence related to block cave mining","volume":"61","author":"Woo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie, H., Konietzky, H., and Zhou, H. (2019). Special Issue \u201cDeep Mining\u201d, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00603-019-01805-9"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Mahmoud, M. (2023). Physical Modelling of Spalling Failure in Underground Structures. [Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Queensland]."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1007\/s10064-010-0272-4","article-title":"Jinping hydropower project: Main technical issues on engineering geology and rock mechanics","volume":"69","author":"Shiyong","year":"2010","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Brown, L.; Hudyma, M. Canadian Seismicity and Rockburst Database; Technical Report; January 2017."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Whyatt, J., Blake, W., Williams, T., and White, B. (2002, January 25\u201327). 60 years of rockbursting in the Coeur d\u2019Alene District of Northern Idaho, USA: Lessons learned and remaining issues. Proceedings of the 2002 SME Annual Meeting and Exhibit, Phoenix, AZ, USA."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01246887","article-title":"Rock bursting phenomena in a superficial rock mass in southern central Sweden","volume":"15","author":"Carlsson","year":"1982","journal-title":"Rock Mech."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/S1365-1609(97)80035-4","article-title":"Prediction of coal face rockbursts and microseismicity in deep longwall coal mining","volume":"34","author":"Fujii","year":"1997","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Mutaz, E., Serati, M., Bahaaddini, M., and Williams, D. (2021, January 18\u201325). On the evaluation of crack initiation stress threshold. Proceedings of the 55th US Rock Mechanics\/Geomechanics Symposium, Virtual."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Terzaghi, K. (1946). Rock Tunneling with Steel Supports, Commercial Shearing and Stamping Company."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2008.03.001","article-title":"Estimating the potential for spalling around a deep nuclear waste repository in crystalline rock","volume":"46","author":"Martin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tust.2018.07.035","article-title":"Experimental simulation investigation on rockburst induced by spalling failure in deep circular tunnels","volume":"81","author":"Gong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1082","DOI":"10.1139\/T07-033","article-title":"The 2003 Canadian Geotechnical Colloquium: Mechanistic interpretation and practical application of damage and spalling prediction criteria for deep tunnelling","volume":"44","author":"Diederichs","year":"2007","journal-title":"Can. Geotech. J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"698","DOI":"10.1139\/t97-030","article-title":"Seventeenth Canadian geotechnical colloquium: The effect of cohesion loss and stress path on brittle rock strength","volume":"34","author":"Martin","year":"1997","journal-title":"Can. Geotech. J."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Blake, W., and Hedley, D. (2003). Rockbursts: Case Studies from North American Hard-Rock Mines, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Karekal, S., Rao, M., and Chinnappa, S. (2005). RaSiM6: Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Rockburst and Seismicity in Mines Proceedings, Australian Centre for Geomechanics."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Catrin, E. (2008). Strength, Fallouts and Numerical Modelling of Hard Rock Masses. [Ph.D. Thesis, Lule\u00e5 University of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Matti, H., John, A., John, P., and Erik, J. (2008). Assessment of the Potential for Rock Spalling at the Olkiluoto Site Posiva OY, Posiva. Working Report."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1007\/s00603-008-0015-z","article-title":"Brittle rock failure in the Steg lateral adit of the L\u00f6tschberg base tunnel","volume":"42","author":"Rojat","year":"2009","journal-title":"Rock Mech. Rock Eng."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1478","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-016-6276-z","article-title":"Analysis of spalling failure in marble rock slope: A case study of Neyriz marble mine, Iran","volume":"75","author":"Doghozlou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1619","DOI":"10.1080\/19475705.2020.1808085","article-title":"Analysis of the spalling process of rock mass around a deep underground ramp based on numerical modeling and in-situ observation","volume":"11","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geomat. Nat. Hazards Risk"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hoek, E., Kaiser, P.K., and Bawden, W.F. (2000). Support of Underground Excavations in Hard Rock, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/b16978"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Sj\u00f6lander, A. (2020). Structural Behaviour of Shotcrete in Hard Rock Tunnels. [Ph.D. Thesis, KTH Royal Institute of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3939","DOI":"10.1029\/JZ071i016p03939","article-title":"Dilatancy in the fracture of crystalline rocks","volume":"71","author":"Brace","year":"1966","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00155255","article-title":"Brittle fracture in compression","volume":"10","author":"Lajtai","year":"1974","journal-title":"Int. J. Fract."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1016\/0148-9062(81)90511-8","article-title":"A simple extension strain criterion for fracture of brittle rock","volume":"18","author":"Stacey","year":"1981","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomech. Abstr."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"470160","article-title":"Early-age strength measurement of shotcrete","volume":"2015","author":"Mohajerani","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Mater."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"35","article-title":"Guide to Shotcrete","volume":"39","author":"Balck","year":"2017","journal-title":"Concr. Int."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tust.2007.08.002","article-title":"Early-age load resistance of fibre reinforced shotcrete linings","volume":"23","author":"Bernard","year":"2008","journal-title":"Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1007\/s10706-012-9495-4","article-title":"Ground support terminology and classification: An update","volume":"30","author":"Thompson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geotech. Geol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Drover, C., and Villaescusa, E. (2015, January 11\u201313). Performance of shotcrete surface support following dynamic loading of mining excavations. Proceedings of the Shotcrete for Underground Support XII, Singapore."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5811","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-09826-1","article-title":"Investigation of the support constraint effect and failure instability law of tunnels constructed using the New Austrian tunneling method","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2012.08.008","article-title":"Laboratory testing of steel fibre reinforced shotcrete","volume":"57","author":"Saw","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/0886-7798(94)00067-U","article-title":"Shortcrete support design in blocky ground: Towards a deterministic approach","volume":"10","author":"Barrett","year":"1995","journal-title":"Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Villaescusa, E., Kusui, A., and Drover, C. (2016, January 18\u201320). Ground support design for sudden and violent failures in hard rock tunnels. Proceedings of the 9th Asian Rock Mechanics Symposium, Bali, Indonesia."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Thompson, A., and Windsor, C. (1992, January 8\u201310). A classification system for reinforcement and its use in design. Proceedings of the Western Australian Conference on Mining Geomechanics, Kalgoorlie, Australia."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Heltzen, A. (1979, January 4\u20136). Shotcrete-An Effective Resource Against Rock Fall In Spalling Rock. Proceedings of the 20th US Symposium on Rock Mechanics (USRMS), Austin, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1007\/s00603-011-0218-6","article-title":"Case histories of four extremely intense rockbursts in deep tunnels","volume":"45","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rock Mech. Rock Eng."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1007\/s42452-022-04967-4","article-title":"Sustainable shotcrete production with waste glass aggregates","volume":"4","author":"Serati","year":"2022","journal-title":"SN Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Villaescusa, E. (2014). Geotechnical Design for Sublevel Open Stoping, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/b16702"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9394145","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/9394145","article-title":"Stability analysis and protection measures of large section tunnel in coal rich weak rock stratum","volume":"2021","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geofluids"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, H., Zhu, Y., Chen, L., Hu, W., and Chen, S. (2019). The prevention and control mechanism of rockburst hazards and its application in the construction of a deeply buried tunnel. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9173629"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"El-Kelesh, A.M., and Matsui, T. (2002, January 26\u201331). Compaction Grouting and Soil Compressibility. Proceedings of the ISOPE International Ocean and Polar Engineering Conference, Kitakyushu, Japan."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alokili, T., Dafalla, M., Al-Mahbashi, A., Alnuaim, A., and Mutaz, E. (2023, January 26\u201329). Tunnel Boring Machine Crushed Limestone as a Cement Grout. Proceedings of the Geo-Congress, Los Angeles, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1061\/9780784484661.005"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Holmstrom, O.C., and Swan, C.W. Geotechnical properties of innovative, synthetic lightweight aggregates. Proceedings of the 1999 International Ash Utilization Symposium."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124762","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.124762","article-title":"The potential use of crushed waste glass as a sustainable alternative to natural and manufactured sand in geotechnical applications","volume":"284","author":"Kazmi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Koehnken, L., and Rintoul, M. (2018). Impacts of Sand Mining on Ecosystem Structure, Process and Biodiversity in Rivers, World Wildlife Fund International."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2015.03.012","article-title":"Mechanical performance of concrete made with aggregates from construction and demolition waste recycling plants","volume":"99","author":"Bravo","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2010.09.037","article-title":"Use of waste marble aggregates in concrete","volume":"25","author":"Hebhoub","year":"2011","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1111\/ijac.13434","article-title":"Waste glass in civil engineering applications\u2014A review","volume":"17","author":"Kazmi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Ceram. Technol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012044","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/1022\/1\/012044","article-title":"A Review: GGBS as a Cement Replacement in Concrete","volume":"1022","author":"Dom","year":"2022","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s42452-020-03716-9","article-title":"Partial replacement of sand with marble waste and scoria for normal strength concrete production","volume":"2","author":"Yifru","year":"2020","journal-title":"SN Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bertoldo, N., Qureshi, T., Simpkins, D., Arrigoni, A., and Dotelli, G. (2023). Concrete with Organic Waste Materials as Aggregate Replacement. Appl. Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/app14010108"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2020.11.674","article-title":"Impact of crushed limestone dust on concrete\u2019s properties","volume":"43","author":"Singh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.3221\/IGF-ESIS.59.38","article-title":"Effect of varying silica-limestone sand fines on the physical-mechanical performance of concrete","volume":"16","author":"Djedid","year":"2022","journal-title":"Frat. Ed Integrit\u00e0 Strutt."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1007\/s13369-019-04258-y","article-title":"Enhancement of Clay\u2013Sand Liners Using Crushed Limestone Powder for Better Fluid Control","volume":"45","author":"Alnuaim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arab. J. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.121245","article-title":"Sustainable application of processed TBM excavated rock material as green structural concrete aggregate","volume":"274","author":"Alnuaim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012013","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/727\/1\/012013","article-title":"Characterization and assessment of crushed limestone powder and its environmental applications","volume":"727","author":"Dafalla","year":"2021","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hbrcj.2012.10.005","article-title":"Influence of limestone waste as partial replacement material for sand and marble powder in concrete properties","volume":"8","author":"Omar","year":"2012","journal-title":"HBRC J."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1080\/19386362.2019.1690184","article-title":"Shear strength prediction for an unsaturated Sand Clay Liner","volume":"16","author":"Dafalla","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Geotech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012012","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/833\/1\/012012","article-title":"Crack Initiation Evolution Under Triaxial Loading Conditions","volume":"833","author":"Mutaz","year":"2021","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1007\/s00603-012-0221-6","article-title":"Evaluation of methods for determining crack initiation in compression tests on low-porosity rocks","volume":"45","author":"Nicksiar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rock Mech. Rock Eng."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/17\/7\/1486\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:18:16Z","timestamp":1760105896000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/17\/7\/1486"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,25]]},"references-count":66,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4]]}},"alternative-id":["ma17071486"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma17071486","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,25]]}}}