{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T22:11:38Z","timestamp":1790028698430,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,20]],"date-time":"2024-09-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1726790400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"transverse project of Shenyang University of Technology","award":["2024-0-43-189"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024-0-43-189"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Most earthen sites are located in open environments eroded by wind and rain, resulting in spalling and cracking caused by shrinkage due to constant water absorption and loss. Together, these issues seriously affect the stability of such sites. Gypsum\u2013lime-modified soil offers relatively strong mechanical properties but poor water resistance. If such soil becomes damp or immersed in water, its strength is significantly reduced, making it unviable for use as a material in the preparation of earthen sites. In this study, we achieved the composite addition of a certain amount of sodium methyl silicate (SMS), titanium dioxide (TiO2), and graphene oxide (GO) into gypsum\u2013lime-modified soil and analyzed the microstructural evolution of the composite-modified soil using characterization methods such as XRD, SEM, and EDS. A comparative study was conducted on changes in the mechanical properties of the composite-modified soil and original soil before and after immersion using water erosion, unconfined compression (UCS), and unconsolidated undrained (UU) triaxial compression tests. These analyses revealed the micro-mechanisms for improving the waterproof performance of the composite-modified soil. The results showed that the addition of SMS, TiO2, and GO did not change the crystal structure or composition of the original soil. In addition, TiO2 and GO were evenly distributed between the modified soil particles, playing a positive role in filling and stabilizing the structure of the modified soil. After being immersed in water for one hour, the original soil experienced structural instability leading to collapse. While the water absorption rate of the composite-modified soil was only 0.84%, its unconfined compressive strength was 4.88 MPa (the strength retention rate before and after immersion was as high as 93.1%), and the shear strength was 614 kPa (the strength retention rate before and after immersion was as high as 96.7%).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17184610","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,20]],"date-time":"2024-09-20T04:31:23Z","timestamp":1726806683000},"page":"4610","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Enhanced Water Resistance of TiO2\u2013GO\u2013SMS-Modified Soil Composite for Use as a Repair Material in Earthen Sites"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Wei","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenyang University of Technology, Shenyang 110870, China"},{"name":"School of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Shenyang University of Technology, Shenyang 110870, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wenbo","family":"Bao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Shenyang University of Technology, Shenyang 110870, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhiqiang","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Shenyang University of Technology, Shenyang 110870, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yike","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials Science and Engineering, Liaoning Technical University, Fuxin 123000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuxuan","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Shenyang University of Technology, Shenyang 110870, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ming","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials Science and Engineering, Liaoning Technical University, Fuxin 123000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120089","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.120089","article-title":"Protecting earthen sites by soil hydrophobicity under freeze-thaw and dry-wet cycles","volume":"262","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133076","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2022.133076","article-title":"Utilization of flue gas desulfurization gypsum to produce green binder for dredged soil solidification: Strength, durability, and planting performance","volume":"367","author":"Wan","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eqrea.2022.100175","article-title":"Influence of spiral anchor composite foundation on seismic vulnerability of raw soil structure","volume":"2","author":"Hou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Earthq. Res. Adv."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2016.03.001","article-title":"Effect of hydrophobic surface treatment on freeze-thaw durability of concrete","volume":"69","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117793","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.117793","article-title":"Research on the anti-icing properties of silicone modified polyurea coatings (SMPC) for asphalt pavement","volume":"242","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128767","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.128767","article-title":"Diffusion resisting performance of concrete modified with sodium methyl silicate in saline soil area","volume":"350","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2113","DOI":"10.1080\/14680629.2022.2117071","article-title":"Research on waterproof performance and mechanism of organic silicon hydrophobic material for roadbed soil","volume":"24","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Road. Mater. Pavement."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, Q.W., Liu, Q., Cheng, K.D., and Liu, S.H. (2022). Study on the Durability of Hydraulic Lime Soil Mixed with Sodium Methyl Silicate. Coatings, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/coatings12070903"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"247","article-title":"The effect of sodium methyl silicate on the water resistance of desulfurized gypsum blocks","volume":"24","author":"He","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, P.K., Ma, Q.W., Zha, M.M., Zhang, J., and Huo, Z.J. (2023). Study on the Modification of Silty Soil Sites Using Nanosilica and Methylsilicate. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16165646"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126858","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.126858","article-title":"Potassium methyl silicate (CH5SiO3Na) assisted activation and modification of alkali-activated-slag-based drying powder coating for protecting cement concrete","volume":"326","author":"Lv","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.134553","article-title":"Investigation into the degradation of air and runoff pollutants using nano g-C3N4 photocatalytic road surfaces","volume":"411","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2022.105235","article-title":"Effect of nano titanium di oxide on mechanical properties of fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag based geopolymer concrete","volume":"61","author":"Jagadesh","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2015.02.003","article-title":"Influences of Nano-TiO2 on the Properties of Cement-Based Materials: Hydration and Drying Shrinkage","volume":"81","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2011.10.102","article-title":"Effect of Nano-SiO2 and Nano-TiO2 Addition on the Rheological Behaviour and the Hardened Properties of Cement Mortars","volume":"532","author":"Senff","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mat. Sci. Eng. A\u2014Struct."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583106","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/583106","article-title":"Effects of Nano-TiO2 on the Toughness and Durability of Cement-Based Material","volume":"2015","author":"Ma","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"133","article-title":"Shear Strength Parameters of Clayey Sand Treated with Cement and Nano Titanium Dioxide","volume":"4","author":"Abbas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geotech. Geol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3449","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2019.12.239","article-title":"Strength properties and durability of clay soil treated with mixture of nano silica and Polypropylene fiber","volume":"26","author":"Anuj","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proceed."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1515\/rams-2022-0052","article-title":"Study on the nanoscale mechanical properties of graphene oxide\u2013enhanced shear resisting cement","volume":"61","author":"Du","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rev. Adv. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2015.01.083","article-title":"Incorporating graphene oxide in cement composites: A study of transport properties","volume":"84","author":"Mohammed","year":"2015","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2014.09.040","article-title":"Nano reinforced cement and concrete composites and new perspective from graphene oxid","volume":"73","author":"Chuah","year":"2014","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"283","article-title":"Finite element based post-buckling analysis of refined graphene oxide reinforced concrete beams with geometrica limperfectio","volume":"25","author":"Seyed","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Concr."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1080\/10584587.2022.2065580","article-title":"Study on Properties of Graphene Oxide Modified Recycled Cement-Based Composites","volume":"227","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Integr. Ferroelectr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, W., He, Y., Bao, W.B., Bao, H.L., Li, D.Y., Zhang, C.L., and Wang, M. (2023). Novel TiO2\/GO\/M-MMT nano-heterostructured composites exhibiting high photocatalytic activity. Front. Chem., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fchem.2023.1113186"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2015.12.092","article-title":"Investigation of the effects of graphene and graphene oxide nanoplatelets on the micro-and macro-properties of cementitious materials","volume":"106","author":"Tong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106857","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2023.106857","article-title":"Investigations of graphene oxides and cement on strength performance of soil","volume":"73","author":"Saleem","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5603","DOI":"10.1007\/s13369-022-07530-w","article-title":"Use of Graphene Oxide Nanomaterial to Improve Mechanical Properties of Cement-Treated Silty Soil","volume":"48","author":"Aziz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arab. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122578","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.122578","article-title":"Studies on combined effects of graphene oxide-fly ash hybrid on the work ability, mechanical performance and pore structures of cementitious grouting under high W\/C ratio","volume":"281","author":"Gao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100487","DOI":"10.1016\/j.flatc.2023.100487","article-title":"H2O2-free strategy derived from Hummers method for preparing graphene oxide with high oxidation degree","volume":"38","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Flatchem"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2019). Geotechnical Test Method Standard (Standard No. GB\/T 50123-2019)."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1007\/s40999-023-00817-5","article-title":"Effect of Natural Pozzolana on the Unconsolidated Undrained Shear Strength of a Lime-Stabilized Clay Soil","volume":"21","author":"Driss","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2012). Technical Specification for the Protection Experiment of Earthen Ruins (Standard No. WW\/T 0039-2012)."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.3390\/coatings5020222","article-title":"Preservation of Historical Stone Surfaces by TiO2 Nanocoatings","volume":"5","author":"Goffredo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Coatings"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"e02791","article-title":"Enhancement and mechanism of macro-defect free (MDF) gypsum water resistance achieved by hydrophobic modification","volume":"20","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Case. Stud. Constr. Mat."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133400","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.133400","article-title":"Application of potassium methylsiliconate in cement-based materials: Retarding of hydration process and improvement of compressive strength","volume":"406","author":"Materak","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrmge.2015.03.013","article-title":"Strength properties of soft clay treated with mixture of nano-SiO2 and recycled polyester fiber","volume":"7","author":"Foad","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Rock. Mech. Geotech."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1080\/1064119X.2017.1335813","article-title":"Study on the shear property of nano-MgO-modified soil","volume":"36","author":"Gao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mar. Georesour. Geotec."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134893","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matlet.2023.134893","article-title":"Effect of sodium methyl-silicate on the performance and structure of geopolymer","volume":"350","author":"Lu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"095008","DOI":"10.1088\/2053-1591\/aa87db","article-title":"Effect of nano-titanium dioxide on mechanical and electrical properties and microstructure of reactive powder concrete","volume":"4","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mater. Res. Express"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng, X.M., Teng, J.D., and Wang, H.W. (2023). Influence Mechanism of Water Content and Compaction Degree on Shear Strength of Red Clay with High Liquid Limit. Materials, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17010162"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonagiri, V., Arif, A.B.M., Ateekh, U.R., and Bhaskar, C.S.C. (2023). Shear, Consolidation Characteristics and Carbon Footprint Analysis of Clayey Soil Blended with Calcium Lignosulphonate and Granite Sand for Earthen Dam Application. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su15076117"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2023.106288","article-title":"Hydration and mechanical properties of FGD gypsum-cement-mineral powder composites","volume":"69","author":"Gou","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"e03662","article-title":"Mechanical properties stabilization of low plasticity Kaolin soil using fly ash and hydrated lime","volume":"21","author":"Ahmed","year":"2024","journal-title":"Case. Stud. Constr. Mat."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.12.053","article-title":"Performance evaluation of high-elasticity asphalt mixture containing inorganic nano-titanium dioxide for applications in high altitude regions","volume":"199","author":"Zheng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1016\/S1872-5805(21)60071-9","article-title":"Research progress on the effect of graphene oxide on theproperties of cement-based composites","volume":"36","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"New Carbon Mater."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2017.08.180","article-title":"Experimental investigation on properties of gypsum-quicklime-soil grout material in the reparation of earthen site cracks","volume":"157","author":"Lv","year":"2017","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26691","DOI":"10.1039\/C9RA04723A","article-title":"The mechanical properties, microstructures and mechanism of carbon nanotube-reinforced oil well cement-based nanocomposites","volume":"9","author":"Lu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rsc. Adv."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/17\/18\/4610\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:00:25Z","timestamp":1760112025000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/17\/18\/4610"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,20]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ma17184610"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma17184610","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,20]]}}}