{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,18]],"date-time":"2026-01-18T11:08:14Z","timestamp":1768734494507,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,23]],"date-time":"2024-09-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1727049600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Open Project Foundation of Jiangsu Wind Power Engineering Technology Center","award":["ZK220302"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZK220302"]}]},{"name":"Open Project Foundation of Jiangsu Wind Power Engineering Technology Center","award":["NITWP202404"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NITWP202404"]}]},{"name":"Nantong Institute of Technology","award":["ZK220302"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZK220302"]}]},{"name":"Nantong Institute of Technology","award":["NITWP202404"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NITWP202404"]}]},{"name":"Qing Lan Project of Jiangsu Province, China","award":["ZK220302"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZK220302"]}]},{"name":"Qing Lan Project of Jiangsu Province, China","award":["NITWP202404"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NITWP202404"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study employs the finite element method to investigate the microstructural evolution and deformation behavior of a 40Cr steel automobile front axle during the quenching process. By establishing a multi-physics field coupling model, the study elucidates the variation patterns of the microstructure field in the quenching process of the front axle under different immersion orientations. It is found that along the length direction, the bainite and martensite structures decrease from the center to the edge region, while the ferrite structure shows an increasing trend. Additionally, the influence of immersion orientation on the hardness of the front axle\u2019s microstructure and deformation behavior is thoroughly discussed. The results indicate that, firstly, when quenched horizontally, the hardness difference among different regions of the front axle is approximately 8.2 HRC, whereas it reaches 10.3 HRC when quenched vertically. Considering the uniformity of the microstructure, the horizontal immersion method is preferable. Secondly, due to the different immersion sequences in different regions of the front axle leading to varying heat transfer rates, as well as the different amounts of martensite structures obtained in different regions, the deformation decreases along the length direction from the center to the edge region. Horizontal immersion quenching, compared to vertical immersion, results in a reduction of approximately 56.2% and 48.9% in deformation on the representative central cross-section (A-A) and the total length of the front axle, respectively. Therefore, considering aspects such as microstructure uniformity and deformation, the horizontal immersion quenching orientation is more favorable.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17184654","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,24]],"date-time":"2024-09-24T08:54:13Z","timestamp":1727168053000},"page":"4654","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Influence of Immersion Orientation on Microstructural Evolution and Deformation Behavior of 40Cr Steel Automobile Front Axle during Oil Quenching"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Yuanji","family":"Shi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Nantong Institute of Technology, Nantong 226005, China"},{"name":"Industrial Perception and Intelligent Manufacturing Equipment Engineering Research Center of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing Vocational University of Industry Technology, Nanjing 210023, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaowen","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Automotive Components, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chengtong","family":"Dong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9078-888X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Junwan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zeyu","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Industrial Perception and Intelligent Manufacturing Equipment Engineering Research Center of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing Vocational University of Industry Technology, Nanjing 210023, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Cheng","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Material Science and Technology, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2020.105204","article-title":"Analysis of the failure modes and design improvement of an eccentrically loaded connecting rod for a double front axle steering linkage prototype","volume":"122","author":"Bilal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1504\/IJHVS.2019.102683","article-title":"Relative ride performance analysis of a torsio-elastic suspension applied to front, rear and both axles of an off-road vehicle","volume":"26","author":"Chai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Heavy Veh. Syst."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1645","DOI":"10.1007\/s12666-015-0738-y","article-title":"Effect of immersion routes on the quenching distortion of a long steel component using a finite element model","volume":"69","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trans. Indian Inst. Met."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116576","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmatprotec.2019.116576","article-title":"Multi-mode distortion behavior of aluminum alloy thin sheets in immersion quenching","volume":"279","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Mater. Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2020.02.901","article-title":"Design and fatigue analysis of front axle beam of a heavy duty truck using ansys","volume":"26","author":"Avikal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2019.09.139","article-title":"Modelling and analysis of different connecting rod material through finite element route","volume":"21","author":"Sathish","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2011.10.007","article-title":"Fatigue life prediction of a heavy vehicle steel wheel under radial loads by using finite element analysis","volume":"20","author":"Ercan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2019.01.004","article-title":"Stress and failure analysis of the connecting rod of diesel engine","volume":"97","author":"Witek","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3722","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2020.06.137","article-title":"Stress analysis of the connecting rod of compression ignition engine","volume":"33","author":"Seralathan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmrt.2017.10.007","article-title":"Design and finite element analysis of a fatigue life prediction for safe and economical machine shaft","volume":"8","author":"Afolabi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1016\/0749-6419(89)90001-6","article-title":"Mathematical modelling of transformation plasticity in steels I: Case of ideal-plastic phases","volume":"5","author":"Leblond","year":"1989","journal-title":"Int. J. Plast."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1016\/0749-6419(89)90002-8","article-title":"Mathematical modeling of transformation plasticity in steels II, coupling with strain hardening phenomena","volume":"5","author":"Leblond","year":"1989","journal-title":"Int. J. Plast."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"164","article-title":"Numerical investigation of non-homogeneous plastic deformation in quenching process","volume":"319","author":"Tekkaya","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1504\/IJMPT.2005.007941","article-title":"Overview of distortion and residual stress due to quench processing. Part I: Factors affecting quench distortion","volume":"24","author":"Canale","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Mater. Prod. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1482","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actamat.2007.11.039","article-title":"Finite element simulation of quench distortion in a low-alloy steel incorporating transformation kinetics","volume":"56","author":"Lee","year":"2008","journal-title":"Acta Mater."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"403","article-title":"The deformation of metals under small stresses during phase transformations","volume":"283","author":"Greenwood","year":"1965","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. A Math. Phys. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMR.557-559.1330","article-title":"Thermal coupled FEM analysis of precision roll forging performing of automobile front axle","volume":"557","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"(2018). Metallic Materials\u2014Rockwell Hardness Test\u2014Part 1: Test Method (Standard No. GB\/T 230.1-2018)."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"(1997). Steel-Determination of Critical Point-Dilatometric Method (Standard No. YB\/T 5127-93)."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Cahn, R.W. (1998). CALPHAD-Calculation of Phase. Pergamon Materials Series, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Zhao, J.C., Fahrmann, M., and Pollock, T.M. (2001). Computer modeling of materials properties. Materials Design Approaches and Experiences, TMS-AIME."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csite.2023.103265","article-title":"Eldin Heat transfer analysis in a longitudinal porous trapezoidal fin by non-Fourier heat conduction model: An application of artificial neural network with Levenberg\u2013Marquardt approach","volume":"49","author":"Goud","year":"2023","journal-title":"Case Stud. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1016\/j.commatsci.2008.04.021","article-title":"A FEM based framework for simulation of thermal treatments: Application to steel quenching","volume":"44","year":"2008","journal-title":"Comput. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5862","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actamat.2009.08.013","article-title":"Phase-field modelling of as-cast microstructure evolution in nickel-based superalloys","volume":"57","author":"Warnken","year":"2009","journal-title":"Acta Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110550","DOI":"10.1016\/j.commatsci.2021.110550","article-title":"Multiphase-field simulation of the solution heat treatment process in a Ni-based superalloy","volume":"196","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108598","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2020.108598","article-title":"Diffusion transformation model in TA15 titanium alloy: The case of nonlinear cooling","volume":"191","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2524","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmrt.2023.10.089","article-title":"Phase transformation kinetics of high-carbon steel during continuous heating","volume":"27","author":"Rezaei","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"14","article-title":"Process modeling for heat treatment: Current status and future developments","volume":"5","author":"Inoue","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Shanghai Jiaotong Univ."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"872","article-title":"Stresses and phase transformations occurring in quenching of carburized steel gear wheel","volume":"1","author":"Inoue","year":"1989","journal-title":"Met. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Maynier, P., Dollet, J., and Bastien, P. (1978). Hardenability Concepts with Applications to Steels, AIME."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"458","article-title":"Multi-physics coupling numerical study on cooling after solution heat treatment for a large die casting steel bloom","volume":"31","author":"Zuo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mater. Rep."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"114","article-title":"Design and analysis of front axle of heavy commercial vehicle","volume":"3","author":"Dhande","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Technol. Manag."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/17\/18\/4654\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:02:38Z","timestamp":1760112158000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/17\/18\/4654"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,23]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ma17184654"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma17184654","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,23]]}}}