{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T20:56:24Z","timestamp":1790456184554,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,15]],"date-time":"2024-10-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1728950400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Science and Technology Department of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Project","award":["2022B03036\u20131"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022B03036\u20131"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The chloride\u2013sulfate corrosion environment of concrete is a significant engineering problem. This paper investigates the effect of the complete\/semi\u2013immersion mode on the durability of concrete in a chloride\u2013sulfate environment by using different granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) dosage rates (10\u201350%) of a metakaolin (MK)-based geopolymer mortar. The chloride\u2013sulfate corrosion environment is discussed by analyzing the apparent morphology, mass change, and mechanical property change in specimens at the age of 120 d of erosion combined with XRD and SEM. The high Ca content in GBFS has an important effect on the strength and erosion resistance of the metakaolin geopolymer (MGP) group mortar; an increase in the GBFS dosage makes the MGP group mortar denser, and the initial strength of the MGP group mortar is positively correlated with the dosage of GBFS. After 120 d of erosion, the GBFS dosage is negatively correlated with erosion resistance, with the high GBFS dosage groups showing more severe damage. Semi-immersion resulted in more severe deterioration at the immersion\u2013evaporation interface zone due to the difference in the ionic concentration and the \u2018wick effect\u2019 at the immersion\u2013evaporation interface zone. Compared with the commonly used OPC mortar, the M40 and M50 groups have improved strength and corrosion resistance and are suitable for engineering environments in highly erosive areas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17205045","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,21]],"date-time":"2024-10-21T07:28:35Z","timestamp":1729495715000},"page":"5045","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Study on the Chloride\u2013Sulfate Resistance of a Metakaolin-Based Geopolymer Mortar"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Jiangbo","family":"Cheng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830047, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0717-0953","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yongjun","family":"Qin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830047, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ziqi","family":"Yao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830047, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ling","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830047, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Changwei","family":"Qu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830047, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155577","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.155577","article-title":"Geopolymer Concrete as Green Building Materials: Recent Applications, Sustainable Development and Circular Economy Potentials","volume":"836","author":"Shehata","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2012.12.030","article-title":"Alkali-Activated Metakaolin: A Short Guide for Civil Engineer\u2014An Overview","volume":"41","author":"Rashad","year":"2013","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129472","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.129472","article-title":"Quantitative Analysis of Reaction Degrees and Factors Influencing Alkali-Activated Metakaolin-GGBFS Blend","volume":"359","author":"Peng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.powtec.2018.12.094","article-title":"Effects of Ultra-Fine Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag on Initial Setting Time, Fluidity and Rheological Properties of Cement Pastes","volume":"345","author":"Ting","year":"2019","journal-title":"Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.131168","article-title":"Fly Ash, GGBS, and Silica Fume Based Geopolymer Concrete with Recycled Aggregates: Properties and Environmental Impacts","volume":"378","author":"Singh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2023.107139","article-title":"Philosophy of Rational Mixture Proportioning of Alkali-Activated Materials Validated by the Hydration Kinetics of Alkali-Activated Slag and Its Microstructure","volume":"168","author":"Kadlec","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.134347","article-title":"The Impact of Slag on the Process of Geopolymerization and the Mechanical Performance of Mine-Tailings-Based Alkali-Activated Lightweight Aggregates","volume":"411","author":"Asadizadeh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107063","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2022.107063","article-title":"Understanding the Impact of Main Seawater Ions and Leaching on the Chloride Transport in Alkali-Activated Slag and Portland Cement","volume":"164","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/S0008-8846(98)00093-3","article-title":"Alkali-Activated Cements Opportunities and Challenges","volume":"29","author":"Roy","year":"1999","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2007.10.011","article-title":"Influence of Activator on the Strength and Drying Shrinkage of Alkali-Activated Slag Mortar","volume":"23","author":"Bilim","year":"2009","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107490","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clay.2024.107490","article-title":"A Review on Metakaolin-Based Porous Geopolymers","volume":"258","author":"Bai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Clay Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119835","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2022.119835","article-title":"Centrifugal-Granulation-Assisted Thermal Energy Recovery towards Low-Carbon Blast Furnace Slag Treatment: State of the Art and Future Challenges","volume":"325","author":"Wu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, G., and Na, O. (2021). Assessment of Mechanical, Thermal and Durability Properties of High-Volume GGBS Blended Concrete Exposed to Cryogenic Conditions. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14092129"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ortega \u00c1lvarez, J.M., Esteban P\u00e9rez, M.D., Rodr\u00edguez Escribano, R.R., Pastor Navarro, J.L., and S\u00e1nchez Mart\u00edn, I. (2016). Microstructural Effects of Sulphate Attack in Sustainable Grouts for Micropiles. Materials, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma9110905"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Falaci\u0144ski, P., Machowska, A., and Szarek, \u0141. (2021). The Impact of Chloride and Sulphate Aggressiveness on the Microstructure and Phase Composition of Fly Ash-Slag Mortar. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14164430"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1567","DOI":"10.1007\/s40996-023-01111-z","article-title":"Incorporation of Micronized Polyethylene Terephthalate in Structural Concrete Blocks","volume":"47","author":"Rodrigues","year":"2023","journal-title":"Iran J. Sci. Technol. Trans. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, H., Gong, K., Cheng, B., Peng, X., Wang, H., and Xu, B. (2024). Effect of Chloride Salt Erosion on the Properties of Straw Fiber Reactive Powder Concrete. Coatings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/coatings14081069"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124461","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.124461","article-title":"Inhibitor Efficiency of Migratory Corrosion Inhibitors to Reduce Corrosion in Reinforced Concrete Exposed to High Chloride Environment","volume":"303","author":"Goyal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.06.135","article-title":"Chloride Diffusion Study of Coral Concrete in a Marine Environment","volume":"123","author":"Da","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1680\/jadcr.23.00141","article-title":"Characteristics of Corrosion Products of Steel Bars in Modified Magnesium Oxysulfide Cement Containing Chloride Salts","volume":"36","author":"Ba","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Cem. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, L., Cai, Y., and Ma, C. (2023). Experimental Study and Numerical Analysis of Chloride Ion Diffusion in Hydrotalcite Concrete in Chloride Salt Environment. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16196349"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102884","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apor.2021.102884","article-title":"Mechanical Properties of Eccentrically Compressed Columns Strengthened with Textile-Reinforced Concrete under the Coupled Action of Chloride Salt Corrosion and Loading","volume":"116","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Ocean Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2017.01.002","article-title":"Friedel\u2019s Salt Profiles from Thermogravimetric Analysis and Thermodynamic Modelling of Portland Cement-Based Mortars Exposed to Sodium Chloride Solution","volume":"78","author":"Shi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119847","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.119847","article-title":"A Fresh Perspective on Effect of Metakaolin and Limestone Powder on Sulfate Resistance of Cement-Based Materials","volume":"262","author":"Hu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105968","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clay.2020.105968","article-title":"Insights to the Sulfate Resistance and Microstructures of Alkali-Activated Metakaolin\/Slag Pastes","volume":"202","author":"Zhu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Clay Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138027","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.138027","article-title":"Mechanistic Insights into Two-Stage Expansion of Concrete under External Sulfate Attack","volume":"446","author":"Zou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2007.02.016","article-title":"Interaction between Sulfate and Chloride Solution Attack of Concretes with and without Fly Ash","volume":"37","author":"Jin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong, J.-J., Zou, Y.-X., Zuo, X.-B., and Li, L. (2024). Experiments on Chloride Binding and Its Release by Sulfates in Cementitious Materials. Materials, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17143429"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107099","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2023.107099","article-title":"Pore Crystallization and Expansion of Cement Pastes in Sulfate Solutions with and without Chlorides","volume":"166","author":"Ran","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2005.04.006","article-title":"Influence of Sulfate Solution Concentration on the Formation of Gypsum in Sulfate Resistance Test Specimen","volume":"36","author":"Bellmann","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132913","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.132913","article-title":"Numerical Modeling of Chloride Diffusion in Cement-Based Materials Considering Calcium Leaching and External Sulfate Attack","volume":"401","author":"Shao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"e01218","article-title":"Degradation of Concrete in Marine Environment under Coupled Chloride and Sulfate Attack: A Numerical and Experimental Study","volume":"17","author":"Sun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.251","article-title":"Effect of Mixed Chlorides on the Degradation and Sulfate Diffusion of Cast-in-Situ Concrete Due to Sulfate Attack","volume":"181","author":"Zhao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1535","DOI":"10.1016\/S0008-8846(00)00386-0","article-title":"The Distributions of Bound Sulfates and Chlorides in Concrete Subjected to Mixed NaCl, MgSO4, Na2SO4 Attack","volume":"30","author":"Brown","year":"2000","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136864","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.136864","article-title":"Effect of Mix Parameters on Chloride Content, Sulfate Ion Concentration, and Microstructure of Geopolymer Concrete","volume":"435","author":"Kumar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2018.11.006","article-title":"Durability of Cement Pastes Exposed to External Sulfate Attack and Leaching: Physical and Chemical Aspects","volume":"116","author":"Ragoug","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, Y., Niu, D., and Su, L. (2021). Chloride Diffusion Property of Hybrid Basalt\u2013Polypropylene Fibre-Reinforced Concrete in a Chloride\u2013Sulphate Composite Environment under Drying\u2013Wetting Cycles. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14051138"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122547","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.122547","article-title":"Chloride Transport and Induced Steel Corrosion in Recycled Aggregate Concrete: A Review","volume":"282","author":"Liang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2011.07.009","article-title":"Field Performance of Concrete Exposed to Sulphate and Low pH Conditions from Natural and Industrial Sources","volume":"34","author":"Bellmann","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.138101","article-title":"Sulfate Resistance of Cement Paste to Internal and External Seawater","volume":"447","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129475","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.129475","article-title":"Sulfate-Induced Expansion of Cement Treated Road Base: Deterioration Law of Performance and Air-Void Structure Change under Water-Heat-Salt Coupling Effect","volume":"359","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, J.-J., Wang, K., Guo, T., Yang, Z.-Y., and Zhang, P. (2019). Effect of Dry\u2013Wet Ratio on Properties of Concrete Under Sulfate Attack. Materials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12172755"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2024.109555","article-title":"From Cement to Geopolymers: Performances and Sustainability Advantages of Ambient Curing","volume":"91","author":"Qu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yao, Z., Luo, L., Qin, Y., Cheng, J., and Qu, C. (2024). Research on Mix Design and Mechanical Performances of MK-GGBFS Based Geopolymer Pastes Using Central Composite Design Method. Sci. Rep., 14.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-59872-0"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"(2008). Test Method for Determing Capability of Resisting Sulfate Corrode of Cement (Standard No. GB\/T749-2008)."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2021). Test Method of Cement Mortar Strength (ISO Method) (Standard No. GB\/T17671-2021)."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2010.11.013","article-title":"Improving Hydraulic Properties of Lime\u2013Rice Husk Ash (RHA) Binders with Metakaolin (MK)","volume":"25","author":"Billong","year":"2011","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/S0008-8846(97)00210-X","article-title":"Sulphate Resistance of Metakaolin Mortar","volume":"28","author":"Khatib","year":"1998","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/S0008-8846(99)00261-6","article-title":"The Effect of Metakaolin on Alkali\u2013Silica Reaction in Concrete","volume":"30","author":"Ramlochan","year":"2000","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125045","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.125045","article-title":"Microstructure and Shrinkage Behavior of High-Performance Concrete Containing Supplementary Cementitious Materials","volume":"308","author":"Weng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2017.03.160","article-title":"Formulation and Characterization of Blended Alkali-Activated Materials Based on Flash-Calcined Metakaolin, Fly Ash and GGBS","volume":"144","author":"Samson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118090","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.118090","article-title":"Performance of Geopolymer Mortar Cured under Ambient Temperature","volume":"242","author":"Khalil","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"878","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2010.01.013","article-title":"Durability and Strength Evaluation of High-Performance Concrete in Marine Structures","volume":"24","author":"Seleem","year":"2010","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2024.107439","article-title":"The Influence of Al2O3, CaO, MgO and TiO2 Content on the Early-Age Reactivity of GGBS in Blended Cements, Alkali-Activated Materials and Supersulfated Cements","volume":"178","author":"Blotevogel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"e02919","article-title":"Understanding the Role of Epoxy Resin and Polyurethane in Toughening Metakaolin-Based Geopolymer Matrix","volume":"20","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2017.10.062","article-title":"Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag Effect on the Durability of Ternary Cementitious System Exposed to Combined Attack of Chloride and Sulfate","volume":"158","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2023.107368","article-title":"Numerical Study on the Chemical and Electrochemical Coupling Mechanisms for Concrete under Combined Chloride-Sulfate Attack","volume":"175","author":"Meng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S1065-7355(96)90057-7","article-title":"The Process of Sulfate Attack on Cement Mortars","volume":"4","author":"Yang","year":"1996","journal-title":"Adv. Cem. Based Mater."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105794","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2019.105794","article-title":"Expansion of CEM I and Slag-Blended Cement Mortars Exposed to Combined Chloride-Sulphate Environments","volume":"123","author":"Ukpata","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106579","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2023.106579","article-title":"Determination of the Chloride Ion Content in Concrete under Simultaneous Chloride and Sulphate Ion Attack","volume":"72","author":"Yu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106724","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2022.106724","article-title":"Time and Spatially Dependent Transient Competitive Antagonism during the 2-D Diffusion-Reaction of Combined Chloride-Sulphate Attack upon Concrete","volume":"154","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127081","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.127081","article-title":"Review on Chloride Transport in Alkali-Activated Materials: Role of Precursors, Activators and Admixtures","volume":"328","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2017.09.159","article-title":"External Sulfate Attack on Alkali-Activated Fly Ash-Blast Furnace Slag Composite","volume":"157","year":"2017","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2018.06.011","article-title":"Effect of Slag Content and Activator Dosage on the Resistance of Fly Ash Geopolymer Binders to Sulfuric Acid Attack","volume":"111","author":"Aiken","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106768","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2022.106768","article-title":"Mechanism Understanding of Alkali-Silica Reaction in Alkali-Activated Materials System","volume":"156","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108755","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2024.108755","article-title":"Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Geopolymers Utilizing Excavated Soils, Metakaolin and Slags","volume":"86","author":"Amar","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, X., Mu, S., Guo, Z., and Liu, G. (2022). Effect of Temperature on the Physical Salt Attack of Cement Mortars under Repeated Partial Immersion in Sodium Sulfate Solution. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15186234"},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"e01506","article-title":"Sulfate Erosion Resistance of Slag-Fly Ash Based Geopolymer Stabilized Soft Soil under Semi-Immersion Condition","volume":"17","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/17\/20\/5045\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:13:54Z","timestamp":1760112834000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/17\/20\/5045"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,15]]},"references-count":68,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]}},"alternative-id":["ma17205045"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma17205045","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,15]]}}}