{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T15:28:47Z","timestamp":1788535727732,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,16]],"date-time":"2024-11-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1731715200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Silesian University of Technology","award":["11\/030\/BKM24\/1206"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11\/030\/BKM24\/1206"]}]},{"name":"Silesian University of Technology","award":["11\/030\/BK24\/1177"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11\/030\/BK24\/1177"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This article sought to determine the response of a carbon foam material derived from polyurethane foam when subjected to a quasi-static compression load. The effects of the foam pore densities and additives (solvents) on the compression strength, compressive modulus, and surface morphology of the carbon foam were investigated. In this study, three different carbon foam pore densities (20, 40, and 60 ppi) and three solvents for the phenol\u2013formaldehyde resins that coated the polymer foam (acetone, ethanol, and methanol) were used. Carbon foams were derived from polyurethane foams by carbonization. Quasi-static compression testing was carried out using a universal testing machine. The compressive strength, compressive modulus, and relative density of these different carbon foams were computed and compared. Two-way ANOVA analyses were performed to compare the significance of solvents and pore density. These results showed that pore density and solvents significantly affected the compressive strength, compressive modulus, and surface morphology of the fabricated polyurethane-derived carbon foam. Finally, the maximum compressive strength and maximum compressive modulus were observed in carbon foam (60 ppi) with 40% methanol as the solvent. Conversely, a minimum compressive strength was observed for a 20 ppi carbon foam with a 20% acetone solvent, and a minimum compressive modulus was observed for a 20 ppi foam with 40% methanol. Lastly, the chemical composition of the polyurethane foams was investigated, and these results indicated that the polyurethane-derived carbon foam had 96% carbon atoms after carbonization.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17225605","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,19]],"date-time":"2024-11-19T07:51:15Z","timestamp":1732002675000},"page":"5605","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Experimental Analysis of the Mechanical Properties of Carbon Foams Under Quasi-Static Compressive Loads"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Krzysztof","family":"Wac\u0142awiak","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Materials Engineering, Department of Materials Technologies, Silesian University of Technology, ul. Krasi\u0144skiego 8, 40-019 Katowice, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jerzy","family":"Myalski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Materials Engineering, Department of Materials Technologies, Silesian University of Technology, ul. Krasi\u0144skiego 8, 40-019 Katowice, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-1986-7215","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Debela N.","family":"Gurmu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Materials Engineering, Department of Materials Technologies, Silesian University of Technology, ul. Krasi\u0144skiego 8, 40-019 Katowice, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Goftila G.","family":"Sirata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Materials Engineering, Department of Materials Technologies, Silesian University of Technology, ul. Krasi\u0144skiego 8, 40-019 Katowice, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2015.02.021","article-title":"Carbon foam: Preparation and application","volume":"87","author":"Inagaki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaap.2021.105359","article-title":"An insight into the role of biomass, biocompounds and synthetic polymers as additives to coal for the synthesis of carbon foams","volume":"160","author":"Diez","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cjche.2017.04.012","article-title":"Carbon foams prepared from coal tar pitch for building thermal insulation material with low cost","volume":"26","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chin. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1319","DOI":"10.1177\/0021998303033818","article-title":"Sandwich Construction with Carbon Foam Core Materials","volume":"37","author":"Sihn","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Compos. Mater."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23699","DOI":"10.1039\/D0TA08749A","article-title":"Carbon foams: 3D porous carbon materials holding immense potential","volume":"8","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. A"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108066","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diamond.2020.108066","article-title":"New method for synthesis of carbon foam on the base of mixture of coal tar pitch and furfural without using pressure and stabilization treatment","volume":"109","author":"Stoycheva","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diam. Relat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-013-7678-x","article-title":"Review: Tailoring the properties of microporous carbon foams","volume":"49","author":"Nagel","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1177\/1099636204042591","article-title":"Finite Element Model of Thermal Transport in Carbon Foams","volume":"6","author":"Druma","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Sandw. Struct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijthermalsci.2003.12.004","article-title":"Analysis of thermal conduction in carbon foams","volume":"43","author":"Druma","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Therm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaap.2016.09.001","article-title":"Preparation and characterization of carbon foam derived from coal pitch","volume":"122","author":"Zhou","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stojanovska, E., Calisir, M.D., Ozturk, N.D., and Kilic, A. (2019). Carbon-based foams, Preparation and applications. Nanocarbon and Its Composites, Woodhead Publishing.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-08-102509-3.00003-1"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5096(03)00072-3","article-title":"Modelling and prediction of bulk properties of open-cell carbon foam","volume":"52","author":"Sihn","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Mech. Phys. Solids"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110077","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diamond.2023.110077","article-title":"Preliminary exploration of the mechanism governing the cell structure variation of mesophase coal pitch\/carbon black composite carbon foam","volume":"136","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Diam. Relat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2265","DOI":"10.1007\/s11831-023-10048-5","article-title":"Design and Analysis of Three-Dimensional Foams: A Review","volume":"31","author":"Sahoo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Arch. Comput. Methods Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1527-2648(200004)2:4<179::AID-ADEM179>3.0.CO;2-G","article-title":"ALPORAS Aluminium Foam: Production Process, Properties, and Applications","volume":"2","author":"Miyoshi","year":"2000","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Mater."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1527-2648(200004)2:4<200::AID-ADEM200>3.0.CO;2-2","article-title":"Aluminium Foam for Automotive Applications","volume":"2","author":"Fuganti","year":"2000","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Mater."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.1016\/S0955-2219(98)00063-6","article-title":"Ceramic foams by powder processing","volume":"18","author":"Montanaro","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Eur. Ceram. Soc."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jeurceramsoc.2008.07.039","article-title":"Different methods to synthesize ceramic foams","volume":"29","author":"Luyten","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Eur. Ceram. Soc."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"58","article-title":"3D printing for construction based on a complex wall of polymer-foam and concrete","volume":"28","author":"Furet","year":"2019","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2003.12.080","article-title":"Carbon foams prepared from polyimide using urethane foam template","volume":"42","author":"Inagaki","year":"2004","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2017.04.001","article-title":"Mechanical and thermal properties of carbon foam derived from phenolic foam reinforced with composite particles","volume":"173","author":"Song","year":"2017","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1080\/00914037.2022.2066669","article-title":"Polymer derived porous carbon foam and its application in bone tissue engineering: A review","volume":"72","author":"Bagal","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Polym. Mater. Polym. Biomater."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3376","DOI":"10.1021\/ef8000778","article-title":"Carbon Foams from Different Coals","volume":"22","author":"Calvo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Energy Fuels"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47185","DOI":"10.1002\/app.47185","article-title":"Carbon foam production from bio-based polyols of liquefied spruce tree sawdust: Effects of biomass\/solvent mass ratio and pyrolytic oil addition","volume":"136","author":"Ozbay","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2005.12.021","article-title":"Carbon foam derived from various precursors","volume":"44","author":"Chen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2018.08.061","article-title":"Biomass-based honeycomb-like architectures for preparation of robust carbon foams with high electromagnetic interference shielding performance","volume":"140","author":"Zeng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136832","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2020.136832","article-title":"Biomass-derived, 3D interconnected N-doped carbon foam as a host matrix for Li\/Na\/K-selenium batteries","volume":"356","author":"Qiu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109460","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2021.109460","article-title":"Fabrication and characterization of carbon foams using 100% Kraft lignin","volume":"201","author":"Yan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2005.06.008","article-title":"Carbon foams from coals. A preliminary study","volume":"84","author":"Calvo","year":"2005","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/S1872-5805(13)60071-2","article-title":"Synthesis of carbon foam with high compressive strength from an asphaltene pitch","volume":"28","author":"Baran","year":"2013","journal-title":"New Carbon Mater."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dib.2016.02.022","article-title":"Data of microstructure and mechanical properties of carbon foams derived from sucrose\/polyacrylamide hydrogel","volume":"7","author":"Yao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Data Brief"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diamond.2019.04.009","article-title":"Effect of different parameters on porosity and compressive strength of coal tar pitch derived carbon foam","volume":"95","author":"Banerjee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diam. Relat. Matererials"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105516","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaap.2022.105516","article-title":"Effects of coal characteristics on the structure and performance of coal-based carbon foam prepared by self-foaming technique under atmospheric pressure","volume":"164","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1007\/s10934-015-9958-0","article-title":"Preparation and characterization of mesophase pitch based carbon foam produced at low pressure","volume":"22","author":"Gul","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Porous Mater."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dang, A., Zhao, Z., Tang, C., Fang, C., Kong, S., Khan, M., Li, T., Zhao, T., and Li, H. (2019). Effect of Phenolic Resin on Micropores Development in Carbon Foam with High Performance. Materials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12081213"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2005.12.025","article-title":"A study of the properties of carbon foam reinforced by clay","volume":"44","author":"Wang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matlet.2014.09.042","article-title":"Fabrication and properties of boric acid modified carbon foam","volume":"137","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diamond.2017.09.008","article-title":"Effect of multi walled carbon nanotubes and diamond nanoparticles on the structure and properties of carbon foams","volume":"79","author":"Khan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diam. Relat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7583","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-015-9314-4","article-title":"Effect of multi-walled carbon nanotube additive on the microstructure and properties of pitch-derived carbon foams","volume":"50","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1007\/s10934-020-00876-2","article-title":"Effect of Ti content on microstructure and performance of carbon foam derived from mesophase pitch","volume":"27","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Porous Mater."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1755","DOI":"10.1007\/s42823-024-00727-z","article-title":"Carbon nanotubes and montmorillonite reinforced carbon foam composites containing hollow microspheres","volume":"34","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Carbon Lett."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"897","DOI":"10.1007\/s10934-015-9963-3","article-title":"Thermal, mechanical and self-destruction properties of aluminium reinforced carbon foam","volume":"22","author":"Farhan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Porous Mater."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cherednichenko, K., Kopitsyn, D., Smirnov, E., Nikolaev, N., and Fakhrullin, R. (2023). Fireproof Nanocomposite Polyurethane Foams: A Review. Polymers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym15102314"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1007\/s10553-024-01678-x","article-title":"New Composites Based on Closed-Cell Polyurethane Foam and Natural Nanomaterials","volume":"60","author":"Smirnov","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Technol. Fuels Oils"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"(1998). Standard Test Method for Apparent Density of Rigid Cellular Plastics (Standard No. ASTM D 1622-98)."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2111","DOI":"10.1002\/app.12821","article-title":"High-density polyethylene foams. I. Polymer and foam characterization","volume":"90","author":"Zhang","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtcomm.2022.104250","article-title":"A new approach to in-situ Co3O4 nanostructure decorated free-standing carbon foam derived from phenolic resin for high-performance supercapacitor","volume":"33","author":"Sharma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater Today Commun."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hou, L., Wang, B., Su, B., Wang, H., and Cao, Y. (2024). Graphene Reinforced Binary Resin-Based Carbon Foam Composites for Mechanical and Electromagnetic Interference Shielding Applications. J. Mater. Eng. Perform., 1\u20139.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11665-024-09888-4"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2023.02.039","article-title":"Morphology modulated defects engineering from MnO2 supported on carbon foam toward excellent electromagnetic wave absorption","volume":"206","author":"Deng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2022.10.081","article-title":"In situ construction of hierarchical core-shell SiCnws@SiO2-carbon foam hybrid composites with enhanced polarization loss for highly efficient electromagnetic wave absorption","volume":"202","author":"Deng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clay.2017.01.030","article-title":"Preparation and properties of montmorillonite\/carbon foam nanocomposites","volume":"140","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Clay Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1755","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02645546","article-title":"The mechanical properties of cellular solids","volume":"14","author":"Ashby","year":"1983","journal-title":"Metall. Trans. A"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lawn, B. (1993). Crack initiation: Flaws. Fracture of Brittle Solids, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511623127"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2009.07.017","article-title":"Comparison of quasi-static and dynamic compression behavior of closed-cell aluminum foam","volume":"526","author":"Parameswaran","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1007\/s10443-021-09993-w","article-title":"Preparation and properties of glass fiber reinforced carbon foam composites","volume":"29","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Compos. Mater."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7071","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-013-7518-z","article-title":"The role of ferrocene on the enhancement of the mechanical and electrochemical properties of coal tar pitch-based carbon foams","volume":"48","author":"Kumar","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106575","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2022.106575","article-title":"Three-dimensional continuous network graphite nanosheets-based carbon foam supported stearic acid as effective shape-stabilized phase change material","volume":"59","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Gibson, L.J., and Ashby, M.F. (1997). The mechanics of foams: Refinements. Cellular Solids: Structure and Properties, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108661","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmecsci.2023.108661","article-title":"Effect of porosity and pore size distribution on elastic modulus of foams","volume":"261","author":"Putignano","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Mech. Sci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compscitech.2007.04.015","article-title":"The effect of solvent choice on the mechanical properties of carbon nanotube\u2013polymer composites","volume":"67","author":"Khan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Compos. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijimpeng.2006.06.012","article-title":"Mechanical models of cellular solids: Parameters identification from experimental tests","volume":"34","author":"Avalle","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Impact Eng."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/17\/22\/5605\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:33:32Z","timestamp":1760114012000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/17\/22\/5605"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,16]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ma17225605"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma17225605","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,16]]}}}